Write an essay (500-700 words) summarizing the goals of this research and its conclusions
JOURNAL OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR, VOL. 12, 543-554(1991)
Social support and newcomer adjustment in
organizations:
Attachment theory at work?
DEBRA L. NELSON
Oklahama State University, U.S.A.
AND
JAMES CAMPBELL QUICK
University of Texas at A rl ing ton, U. S. A.
Summary
Social support has been suggested as important for newcomer adjustment to an organiza-
tion. The present paper reports a longitudinal study of 91 newcomers to three separate
organizations. The effects of availability and helpfulness of 10 sources of social support
on newcomers’ reports of psychological distress, satisfaction, intention to leave, and
their supervisors’ assessment of their performance rating (A’^ of supervisors = 41; n of
ratings = 91) were examined. The availability of support activities such as offsite training
sessions and business trips were found to be associated with decreased psychological
symptoms. Helpfulness of various relationship supports were associated with positive
adjustment. These results are discussed within the context of attachment theory and
our knowledge of social support in work settings.
Introduction
A new job poses multiple challenges for the individual in terms of tasks to master, roles to
perform, and relationships to explore. As the newcomer encounters these demands, he/she
attempts to make sense of the barrage of stimuli in the organizational environment (Louis,
1980). While this process poses many positive demands and potential rewards, the socialization
experience may also be a time of loneliness, social isolation, and perfonnance anxieties (Katz,
1978; Nelson, 1987; Van Maanen and Schein, 1979). Organizational attempts to facilitate the
adjustment of newcomers largely consist of programs aimed at helping the newcomer rapidly
become a productive insider (Peldman, 1981; Katz, 1985). In situations where formal programs
are unavailable, the socialization mechanism, by default, is the informal social organization
(Katz, 1985).
As newcomers adjust, they seek out social support and aid from others (Feldman and Brett,
1983). An important question for organizations is whether the provision of supportive resources
contributes to successful newcomer adjustment. A second question is whether the available
The study reported in this article was funded in part by a Richard D. Irwin dissertation award to Debra Nelson.
The authors wish to thank Jeffrey Greenhaus, Michael A. Hitt, Charles Williams and two anonymous JOB reviewers
for their helpful comments.
Correspondence should be addressed to Debra L. Nelson, Department of Management, College of Business Administration, Oklahama State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, U.S. A.
0894-3796/91/060543-12$06.00
© 1991 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 24 August 1989
Final Revision 8 May 1990
544
D. L NELSON AND J. C. QUICK
resources are perceived as helpful to newcomers in their successful adjustment. The present
study examines the availability and helpfulness of social support resources in relation to two
positive adjustment indicators — job satisfaction and performance — and two negative adjustment indicators — psychological distress symptoms and intention to leave the organization.
Social support and attachment behavior theory
House (1981) identified four forms of social support: emotional, appraisal, informational, and
instrumental support. These forms of support may be expressed in several ways. For example,
emotional support may be care giving or affective concern; appraisal support may be affirmation
or evaluative feedback; informational support may be suggestions or directives; and instrumental
support may be aid in kind or environmental modification (House, 1981, p. 23). These forms
of social support may (1) reduce the stressors which the individual faces (a direct effect), (2)
reduce the effects of symptoms which the individual may experience (a direct effect); or (3)
moderate the relationship between stressors and health-related outcomes (a buffering effect)
(Payne and Jones, 1987). House (1981) did not elaborate on the mechanisms whereby social
support relationships develop or fail to develop in the case of an individual.
A possible explanation of the mechanism comes from the research of Bowlby (1973, 1982)
who formulated a theory of attachment behavior. According to the theory, the primary function
of attachment behavior is defense against predators. This is supported by three main facts
from observational research with several species of mammals, birds, and human infants (Bowlby,
1982, p. 226). First, the isolated member is more likely to be attacked by predators than the
attached member. Second, those who are most vulnerable because of age, size, or condition
(e.g. young offspring) more readily exhibit attachment behavior. Third, attachment behavior
is exhibited in high intensity in stressful or alarm situations, such as when a predator is suspected.
Bowlby argues that those who form healthy attachments to other people are more secure and
self-reliant than those who do not.
Quick, Nelson and Quick (1987, 1990) have extended Bowlby’s original theory in examining
the behavior of corporate executives. At a psychological level, they contend, these executives
form attachments which provide them with essential social support functions in time of stress.
Bowlby (1982) argues that the self-reliant person appears quite independent because of the
variety of supportive attachments the individual has formed. Where this ability to form health
attachments is interfered with, the individual becomes vulnerable to various environmental
risks due to their isolation. Hence, attachment theory is the underlying theoretical basis for
explaining the process whereby an individual uses available social supports to avert distress.
A part of the direct, stressor-reduction effect of social support may also be understood theoretically through attachment theory. Vaillant’s (1977) evaluation research of the men of the Harvard
class of 1942 over a 35-year period shows that those who successfully adapted to life, as opposed
to those who. were unsuccessful from a mental health perspective, used more highly developed
defense mechanisms, such as sublimation and humor. These mechanisms were ones developed
over a number of years, often from modeling parental behavior. Therefore, psychological attachments afford a basis for modeling behavior and provide information about managing stressors
in life, thus reducing the impact of the stressors. So, while the early life attachments afford
defense for the individual, they also educate the individual about self-defense for later in life.
Social support, satisfaction, stress and strain
A number of research studies have examined the impact of social support on various adjustment
indicators in both work and non-work situations. In a study of 2046 bank employees, Beehr
SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOR THEORY
545
and Drexler (1986) found social support to have a direct effect upon job satisfaction and job
search intent, as opposed to having a moderating effect between role stress and these two
outcomes.
In addition to effects on satisfaction, the effects of social support on commitment and turnover
have been studied among nurses. Fisher’s (1985) longitudinal study produced main effects of
social support from peers and supervisor in the form of increased satisfaction and commitment
and decreased turnover and stress from unmet expectations. In another study of nurses, Kaufmann and Beehr’s (1986) results showed stressors to be more strongly related to strains when
subjects reported high social support. These authors pose several explanations for this counterintuitive finding, which conflicts with Fisher’s (1985) results. Kaufmann and Beehr (1986) suggest
the possibility that nurses experiencing high levels of stress seek out more social support than
those experiencing less stress.
Seers, McGee, Serey and Graen (1983) examined the effects of social support from four
sources (branch managers, unit managers, co-workers, and friends) on several facets of job
satisfaction. Results indicated a direct effect of unit manager (immediate supervisor) support
on satisfaction with supervision. Co-worker support was related to satisfaction with work and
satisfaction with supervision. The different patterns of relationships which emerged indicated
the need to specify sources of support in conducting this type of research. In an investigation
involving workers in a human service agency, Leiter and Meechan (1986) found that a social
support network not concentrated within work was negatively associated with emotional exhaustion.
Taking a different approach to social support. Ford (1985) found that emotional support
(as opposed to informational and structural support) had positive effects on job satisfaction,
job stress, and role stress in a sample of black employees of a sales and manufacturing firm.
Employees of a contracting firm were studied by Ganster, Fusilier and Mayes (1986) in terms
of support from the supervisor, co-workers, family, and friends. Supervisory support was strongly
related to workplace strain, while support from co-workers was moderately related to workplace
strain.
In summary, there are conflicting findings concerning the beneficial effects of social support
on satisfaction, anxiety, depression, commitments, turnover, stress and strain. While some studies
provide evidence for the benefits of social support in achieving satisfaction and adjustment
at work, other studies have found high levels of support among strained employees. In addition,
previous research had indicated that the source of social support is a consideration important
for investigation. This research literature needs to be extended with research that looks at
the availability and helpfulness of social support sources for newcomer adjustment at work.
Research hypotheses
Previous research has not examined the role of social support in newcomer adjustment. Kasl
and Wells (1985) call for studies of social support to be conducted around major transitions
such as entry into a high demand job, when substantial variance in adaption can be observed.
There are two reported studies which are most germane to the present paper. Louis, Posner
and Powell (1983) examined the availability and helpfulness of various socialization practices
encountered by business school alumni. While differential levels of availability were reported,
only helpfulness was found to affect the subjects’job satisfaction and commitment.
In a study of the same socialization practices, Posner and Powell (1985) hypothesized that
women would report lower levels of availability and helpfulness of socialization practices than
would men. Their findings indicated that women reported more availability of mentors, while
546
D. L. NELSON AND J.C. QUICK
Newcomer Adiustmftnt indicators
Social SuDoort Characteristic
+
Availability
»
Positive Indicators
1. Job Satisfaction
2. Performance Rating
r
Helpfulness
> <
Negative Indicators
1.. Psychological distress
2. Intention to leave
Figure 1. Social support and newcomer adjustment
men reported greater availability of business trips. In addition, men reported formal orientation,
other newcomers, and the supervisor as significantly more helpful than did women.
This study examines Louis et a/.’s (1983) and Posner and Powell’s (1985) socialization practices
as specific sources of social support for organizational newcomers. Measuring these practices
as potential sources of support is appropriate to the issue at hand, namely newcomer adjustment.
Both formal sources of support (e.g. orientation programs) and informal sources of support
(e.g. social activities) may play a role in newcomer adjustment (Katz, 1985). This strategy fits
with Kasl and Wells’ (1985) argument for situationally relevant measurement innovations in
social support. In addition. House and Kahn (1985) call for new measures which tap potential
sources of support, availability of support, and quality of support received. The measure used
in this study taps multiple sources of support for newcomers, assesses the availability of support,
and examines the newcomer’s perceived helpfulness of each support source as an indicator
of the quality of support.
Based upon this review of the literature, two composite testable hypotheses are proposed:
H,
Newcomers who report availability of various forms of social support will report lower psychological distress and intention to leave and higher job satisfaction and performance.
The helpfulness of various forms of social support will be positively related to newcomer job
satisfaction and performance and negatively related to psychological distress and intention
to leave.
The key social support and newcomer adjustment constructs are presented in Figure 1. The
figure depicts two positive and two negative adjustment indicators as well as the two characteristics of social support included in the study. The relationships specified in hypotheses 1 and
2 are also depicted in the figure. As indicated in the figure, availability affects or constrains
helpfulness. That is, helpfulness is reduced by declining availability.
Gender differences in the use of social support at work have not been the subject of investi-
SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOR THEORY
547
gations, thus, the social support literature provides little basis for hypothesis development.
Differences in availability and helpfulness of support may be anticipated given the male-dominated workforce; that is, males may more readily provide support to male newcomers. Further,
it may be expected that males and females may possess different needs for support. In this
study, gender differences are explored via the following research questions:
Qi
What are the differences in the availability of social support sources as reported by men versus
women?
Q2
What are the differences in helpfulness of social support sources as reported by men versus
women?
Method
Sample
Subjects for the study were all newcomers in three organizations who joined during a 3-month
window.’ The three organizations were a large university (n = 28), an oil field service company
(n = 27), and an electronics manufacturer (n = 36). All subjects held professional-level, exempt
positions with their organizations. A questionnaire was mailed to each subject during the subjects ninth month on the new job. In addition, questionnaires were mailed to the subjects
supervisors to obtain performance ratings. Participation was voluntary, and confidentiality
was assured. Ninety-one useable questionnaires were returned out of 100 mailed (91 per cent
response rate). Fifty-one males and 40 females participated in the study, with average age
of 34 years. No significant differences emerged by organization regarding the variables in the
study or the demographic variables of age, education, or job level.
Measures
Indices of social support were taken from Louis et al. (1983).^ Subjects were asked to report
the availability and helpfulness of resources from which new employees get information about
their new job or organization. Availability was assessed by a yes/no response. Helpfulness
was indicated on a 5-point scale (1 =very little; 5 = very much) for each resource the subject
indicated as available. The resources contained in the social support index included formal
sources such as supervisors and orientation sessions as well as informal sources such as business
trips and social activities. For example, through business trips newcomers may receive substantial
A power analysis was conducted prior to the execution of this research study using the procedures and recommendations
of Cohen (1977). The a priori assumptions made for this study were a significance level of 0.05, and effect size of
0.30 (which Cohen recommends as a ‘moderate’ effect size) and a power of 0.80 (which is again recommended by
Cohen). Given that the hypotheses in the study, based upon the literature review, are directional in nature, a one-tailed
test of significance is also assumed. Based upon these four given parameters and Cohen’s (1977) calculation procedure,
the recommended sample was N = 67.
In order to develop a valid measure of sources of social support, Louis et al. (1983) used a three-step process.
First, they generated a list of sources of social support for newcomers. Second, they had two independent groups
(one of newcomers and the other of personnel professionals) review the list for completeness. Based upon the feedback
from the two groups, they revised their list. Third, they had one group of human resource scholars independently
evaluate the revised list for completeness and accuracy. Revisions were then made a second time, resulting in the
final set of 10 sources.
548
D. L. NELSON AND J C. OUICK
information about their organizational roles via social information processing with customers
and/or clients.
An examination of the intercorrelation matrix for the 10 independent variables revealed an
average correlation of +0.27 and a range of -0.01 to +0.49. Based upon these results, it
was concluded that the social support sources were sufficiently independent for further analysis
and that problems with multicollinearity were not present.
Work stressors (demands) were measured by Ivancevich and Matteson s (1980) Stress Diagnostic Survey, comprised of 48 items. Stressors measured by the SDS included role conflict, work
overload, and career progress. The internal reliability for the SDS in the present study was
found very acceptable with a = 0.92. Responses were gathered using a seven-point scale ranging
from 1 (never a source of demand) to 7 (always demanding) and all 48 items were summed.
Outcome measures were chosen to indicate the degree to which newcomers had successfully
adjusted to the new job. Psychological distress symptoms were measured by nine items from
the Symptoms Checklist (Derogatis, 1977). Subjects rated the intensity of symptoms such as
inability to concentrate and irritability on five-point scales. Internal reliability in the present
study was a = 0.84. General job satisfaction was measured using the five-item scale from the
Job Diagnostic Survey (Hackman and Oldham, 1975), with a =0.71 for this sample. Intention
to leave the organization was tapped by a three-item scale (Cammann, Fichman, Jenkins and
Klesh, 1979), with a calculated to be 0.82. Perfonnance was rated by the subject’s immediate
supervisor who responded to a seven-point scale ranging from (1) ‘performance not at all satisfactory’ to (7) “performs extremely well’
Both positive indicators were positively correlated and both negative indicators were positively
correlated. Each positive indicator was inversely correlated with each negative indicator. Hence,
all correlations are as would be expected. The only correlation above 0.50 was the +0.87 relationship between psychological distress and intent to leave. This positive correlation is somewhat
stronger than anticipated, with the common variance being 75 per cent between these two
dependent measures.
Results
Summary data concerning the availability and helpfulness of each social support source are
contained in Table 1. Numbers and percentages of subjects responding to the availability of
each particular source are reported. Means and standard deviations are reported for helpfulness.
Of the 10 sources of informational social support, all but three were reported available to
over half of the respondents. The least available sources were offsite training sessions, business
trips, and mentors. The most available source was daily interactions with peers.
All mean helpfulness scores were greater than 3 (the scale midpoint), suggesting that these
sources of support were perceived as more helpful than unhelpful. Examination of the mean
helpfulness scores places daily interactions with peers, supervisor, buddy/senior co-worker, and
secretary/support staff as the top four sources of support. Social activities were available to
half of the subjects and were perceived as important sources of social support.
The effects of availability were assessed by examining mean scores for outcome variables
in cases where each social support resource was available or unavailable and then testing for
significant differences in means based on availability. These data are presented in Table 2.
Four significant differences emerged from this analysis using r-tests. Increased psychological
distress symptoms were reported by those newcomers for whom offsite training sessions and
business trips were not available. In addition, increased job satisfaction levels were reported
SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOR THEORY
549
Table 1. Availability/helpfulness of social support sources
Social support source
Availability
n
%
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
61
29
50
60
28
74
62
30
45
45
Formal orientation
Training sessions
Buddy/senior worker
Secretary/support staff
Busiress trips
Daily interactions/peers
Supervisor
Mentor/sponsor
Other newcomers
Social/recreational activities
Helpfulness
Mean
S.D.
67.03
31.87
54.95
65.93
30.77
81.32
68.13
32.97
49.45
49.45
3.47
3.33
3.90
3.82
3.21
4.03
4.00
3.55
3.54
3.61
0.80
0.84
0.81
0.79
0.90
0.74
0.95
0.81
1.00
0.80
n = 9.
by newcomers when mentors and senior co-workers were not available as sources of support.
This latter result is somewhat counterintuitive to hypothesis 1.
Perceived helpfulness of each social support resource was correlated with the four indicators
of adjustment. The results presented in Table 3 indicate that the supervisor as a source of
social support and other newcomers as sources of social support were negatively related to
psychological distress symptoms, thus supporting hypothesis 2. Secretary/support staff and daily
interactions with peers were positively related to job satisfaction, again supporting hypothesis
2. The mentor as a source of support was negatively related to job satisfaction, thus providing
no support for the hypothesis. Daily interactions with peers were negatively related to intention
to leave the organization (supporting H2), while mentoring was positively related to intention
to leave (not supporting H2). All significant relationships between social support resources
and supervisory-rated performance were in the negative direction. These data not only provide
Table 2. Effect of availability of social support resources on indicators of newcomer adjustment
Indicator of adjustment
Social support source
Fonpal orientation
Offsite training session
Buddy/senior worker
Secretary/support staff
Business trips
Daily interactions/w peers
Supervisor
Mentor
Other newcomers
Social/recreational activities
Psychological
distress symptoms”t
Not
Avail. iivail.
1.57
1.42
1.65
1.65
1.47
1.63
1.60
1.64
1.60
1.57
.70
.71§
.57
.54
.68§
.55
1.65
.60
] .64
1 .66
Job
satisfactionf
Not
Avail.
avail.
5.26
5.19
5.15
5.25
5.21
5.29
5.25
4.99
5.25
5.31
5.27
5.29
5.39§
5.28
5.28
5.15
5.29
5.40§
5.27
5.22
Intention to
to leavet
Performance^:
Not
Not
Avail.
avail.
Avail.
avail.
2.61
2.53
2.72
2.53
2.46
2.55
2.51
2.82
2.60
2.50
2.57
2.62
2.43
2.70
2.65
2.77
2.78
2.48
2.58
2.69
5.45
5.40
5.39
5.50
5.55
5.49
5.56
5.37
5.42
5.43
5.67
5.58
5.68
5.54
5.50
5.65
5.45
5.67
5.57
5.61
* Five-point scale (1 = did not notice symptom; 5 = very intense).
t Seven-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree).
X Seven-point scale (1 = does not perform job at all well; 7 = performs job extremely well).
§ Means significantly different (p < 0.05) using /-tests.
550
D. L. NELSON AND J. C. QUICK
Table 3. Correlations between helpfulness of social support resources and indicators of adjustment
Social support source
Formal orientation
Offsite training sessions
Buddy/senior worker
Secretary/support staff
Business trips
Daily interactions with peers
Supervisor
Mentor
Other newcomers
Social/recreational activities
Indicators of adjustment
Intention
Psychological distress
Job
to leave
symptoms
satisfaction
-0.14
-0.05
0.18
-0.04
0.10
0.17
-0.28t
0.12
-0.27*
0.02
0.10
-0.02
-0.04
O.33t
-0.20
0.38*
0.17
-0.591
0.02
-0.09
Performance
-0.17
-0.14
0.02
-0.18
0.15
-0.21*
-0.19
0.05
-0.18
-0.24*
0.10
-0.09
-0.21*
-0.14
0.48t
-0.45t
-0.15
-0.01
-0.30*
-0.24
*p
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