For this article review, you will locate a peer-reviewed article from a scientific journal in the field of psychology based on information from any of the chapters you have read for Test #1. The article must be based on an original scientific study that contains a clear methods and results section. It should not be a review paper, opinion paper, or article from a magazine. Articles should be recent, published in the last ten years.
Please provide the following elements in your review:
1) A paragraph or two summarizing the article including:
a. the objectives of the study (why did the authors conduct the study and what was their research hypothesis?)
b. a brief description of the methods used (number of subjects, procedure)
c. an overview of the results obtained
2) A paragraph explaining how the authors interpreted the results and what the author(s) concluded from the results.
3) A paragraph describing your reaction to the study.
a. Do you have any criticisms or ideas about how the study could have been better?
b. What does the article contribute to cognitive psychology?
c. How are the findings relevant to our lives?
Chapter 1
Introduction to Cognitive Psychology
The Complexity of Cognition
- Cognition involves
- Perception
- Paying attention
- Remembering
- Distinguishing items in a category
- Visualizing
- Understanding and production of language
- Problem solving
- Reasoning and decision-making
- All include ?hidden? processes of which we may not be aware
The Complexity of Cognition
- Cognitive Psychology
- The branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of the mind
- Cognition refers to the mental processes, such as perception, attention, and memory, that are what the mind does
Some Questions to Consider
- How is cognitive psychology relevant to everyday experience?
- Are there practical applications of cognitive psychology?
- How is it possible to study the inner workings of the mind when we can?t really see the ?mind? directly?
- How are models used in cognitive psychology?
History of Psychology
- Plato (424 ? 327 BC)
- Greek philosopher who took a rationalist approach to knowledge.
- Believed that the route to knowledge was through logical analysis, instrospection and contemplation
- Look up, not out for answers
- Aristotle (384-322 BC)
- Plato?s student who took the empirical approach to knowledge.
- Believed that the truth is uncovered only through experience and by careful observation of the external world
- Look out, not up for answers
Plato on left, Aristotle on right
Psychology in the Middle Ages
- Body is a machine.
- Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
- Invented analytic geometry.
- First to contribute to the science of psychology.
- ?I think therefore I am?.
- Interactive dualism
- The mind and body are independent but interact through the pineal gland.
- Body is material (involuntary); mind is immaterial (voluntary)
- Ideas are innate. Humans are born with instincts.
History of Psychology
- Nature vs. Nurture
- Heredity vs. Environment
- John Locke (1632-1704)
- Rejected notion that ideas are innate.
- Mind is a tabula rasa.
- Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
- We may not be blank slates but we also do not come into the world fully prepared.
History of Psychology
Psychology today is or strives to be a synthesis of the two approaches
without theories, hypotheses, and ideas – what do we do with our empirical observations (data)?
conversely, we can?t just rely on inference, conjecture, or what we think about the way things are – we need empirical observations (data)!
The First Cognitive Psychologists
- Donders (1868)
- How long does it take for a person to make a decision?
- Reaction-time (RT) experiment
- Measures interval between stimulus presentation and person?s response to stimulus
The First Cognitive Psychologists
- Donders (1868)
- Simple RT task:
- When you see a light appear, press the button.
- Choice RT task:
- When you see a light on the left side appear, push the left button.
- When you see a light on the right side appear, push the right button.
- Reaction time is how fast the participant pressed the button after the light came on.
The First Cognitive Psychologists
*
? FIGURE 1.2 A modern version of Donders? (1868) reaction time experiment: (a) the
simple reaction time task; and (b) the choice reaction time task. In the simple reaction time
task, the participant pushes the J key when the light goes on. In the choice reaction time
task, the participant pushes the J key if the left light goes on and the K key if the right light
goes on. The purpose of Donders? experiment was to determine
The First Cognitive Psychologists
*
The First Cognitive Psychologists
- Donders (1868)
- How long does it take to make a decision?
- Choice RT ? Simple RT = Time to make a decision
- Choice RT = 1/10th sec longer than Simple RT
- 1/10th sec to make decision
- Mental responses cannot be measured directly but can be inferred from the participant?s behavior
The First Cognitive Psychologists
- Wundt (1897)
- Founded the first psychology laboratory
- University of Leipzig, Germany
- Also did Reaction Time experiments
The First Cognitive Psychologists
- Wundt (1897)
- Approach
Structuralism: experience is determined by combining elements of experience called sensations - Our experience of things includes it?s color, taste, structure, smell, sound, etc.
- Sensations combine to tell us what the experience or object is.
- Method
Analytic introspection: participants trained to describe experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli
The First Cognitive Psychologists
- Ebbinghaus (1885/1913)
How long does it take us to forget something we learn?
- Read list of nonsense syllables aloud many times to determine number of repetitions necessary to repeat list without errors
NAD, TOC, RET, CAK, ZIF, etc.
One list may have 20 of these. One list may have 50 of these.
Sometimes he recalled them immediately; sometimes after a 1 hour delay. After a delay there always some forgetting.
- After some time, he tried to relearn the list and found that:
- Short intervals = fewer repetitions to relearn
- Learned many different lists at many different retention intervals
The First Cognitive Psychologists
- Ebbinghaus (1885/1913)
- Savings = (Original time to learn the list) ? (Time to relearn the list after a delay)
- Savings curve shows savings as a function of retention interval
The First Cognitive Psychologists
*
FIGURE 1.5 Ebbinghaus?s savings (or
forgetting) curve. Taking the percent savings as a
measure of the amount remembered, Ebbinghaus
plotted this against the time interval between
initial learning and testing.
(Source: Based on data from Ebbinghaus, 1885/1913.)
William James?s Principles of Psychology
- James was an early American psychologist who taught the first psychology course at Harvard University.
- His observations were based on the functions of his own mind, not experiments.
- He considered many topics in cognition, including thinking, consciousness, attention, memory, perception, imagination, and reasoning.
- Was particularly interested in attention, noting that we are barraged with sensations and experiences all day but not all of them are remembered. Why? We don?t pay attention.
Criticism of the Study of the Mind
- Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
- His contribution was one of the most important ever made to psychology.
- Not a psychologist but a physiologist.
- Said of psychology ?? it is still open to discussion whether psychology is a natural science, or whether it can be regarded as a science at all.?
- How can we have a ?science? if we are studying something like the ?mind?.
Criticism of the Study of the Mind
- Pavlov discovered classical conditioning.
- Pair a neutral event with an event that naturally produces some outcome
- After many pairings, the ?neutral? event now also produces the outcome
- See this video for an explanation.
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bRrBsoU3PVI
- Showed that we can only study behavior, not mental processes.
The First Cognitive Psychologists
- John Watson was very influenced by Pavlov.
- He noted two problems with Wundt and James? approaches:
- Extremely variable results from person to person
- Results difficult to verify
- Invisible inner mental processes
The Rise of Behaviorism
- Watson proposed a new approach called behaviorism
- The goal was to eliminate the mind as a topic of study.
- Instead, study directly observable behavior because that is all we can know for sure.
- We can never know what another person is thinking unless they tell us, and even then they could be lying.
- Said psychology has failed to establish itself as a natural science.
- Believed psychology should be a truly experimental discipline that studied only observable phenomena.
- Rather than you tell me that you are nervous, I would observe your behavior (finger tapping, nail-biting, sweating, heart rate, etc.).
The Rise of Behaviorism
- Watson and Rayner (1920) ? ?Little Albert? experiment
- Classical conditioning of fear
- They hypothesized that if a stimulus that automatically produces a certain emotion such as fear is repeatedly experienced at the same moment as something else, that stimulus will eventually become a conditioned stimulus for the fear.
Little Albert was a physically and psychologically healthy little boy borrowed from an orphanage at the age of 9 mo.
The Rise of Behaviorism
Several items were presented to Little Albert
white rat, rabbit, dog, fur coat
mask with and without hair
He initially had no fear of any of the objects.
So then they started scaring him after showing him the object
The Rise of Behaviorism
- Albert was very afraid of loud noise.
- Following a loud noise he began to cry.
- The Rat (neutral stimulus) or other objects was presented to Albert followed by loud noise.
- After 7 pairings, the rat began to elicit fear and crying.
- He used this study to show that what was going on in the babys? mind was irrelevant. You only had to observe behavior.
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hBfnXACsOI
=
The Rise of Behaviorism
- B.F. Skinner (1940s through 1960s)
- Interested in determining the relationship between stimuli and response
- Operant conditioning
- Shape behavior by rewards or punishments
- Behavior that is rewarded is more likely to be repeated
- Behavior that is punished is less likely to be repeated
The Rise of Behaviorism
The Reemergence of the Mind in Psychology
- Tolman (1938) trained rats to find food in a four-armed maze
- The first time they took a long time to find the food; after several trials they would run directly to the food
- Two competing interpretations:
- Behaviorism predicts that the rats learned to ?turn right to find food?
- Tolman believed that the rats had created a ?cognitive map? in their mind of the maze and were navigating to a specific arm
The Reemergence of the Mind in Psychology
- Tolman (1938)
- What happens when the rats are placed in a different arm of the maze?
- The rats didn?t just turn right from where they were.
- They navigated to the specific arm where they previously found food.
- Supported Tolman?s interpretation
- Did not support behaviorism interpretation
The Reemergence of the Mind in Psychology
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The Decline of Behaviorism
- A controversy over language acquisition
- Skinner (1957) ? Verbal Behavior
- Argued children learn language through operant conditioning.
- Children imitate speech they hear
- Their mom says ?Mama? to them.
- If the baby repeats it she screams in delight and says ?Good boy? or ?good girl?.
- Correct speech is rewarded.
The Decline of Behaviorism
- Chomsky (1959)
- Argued children do not only learn language through imitation and reinforcement
- Children say things they have never heard and can not be imitating
- Children say things that are incorrect and have not been rewarded for
- I runned away (instead of ran).
- He taked it away from me (instead of he took it away).
- Language must be determined by inborn biological program
Studying the Mind
- So how can we study the unobservable mind?
- To understand complex cognitive behaviors:
- Measure observable behavior
- Make inferences about underlying cognitive activity
- Consider what this behavior says about how the mind works
The Cognitive Revolution
- Shift from behaviorist?s stimulus-response relationships to an approach that attempts to explain behavior in terms of the mind
A new device was invented?..?..the computer!
This changed the way people thought about information processing
people started talking about the mind in computer terms:
input, encoding information, storing information ~ memory store, & output
information codes: representing information as symbols
limitations in processing capacity
The Cognitive Revolution
- Early computers (1950s) processed information in stages
- Information-processing approach
- A way to study the mind created from insights associated with the digital computer
The Cognitive Revolution
- Cherry (1953)
- ?Dichotic? listening
- Present message A in left ear
- Present message B in right ear
- To ensure attention, focus attention on only one message
- Participants were able to focus only on the message they were focusing attention on.
The Cognitive Revolution
The Cognitive Revolution
- Broadbent (1958)
- Flow diagram representing what happens as a person directs attention to one stimulus
- Unattended information does not pass through the filter
The Cognitive Revolution
*
FIGURE 1.9 (a) Flow diagram for an early computer.
FIGURE 1.9 (b) Flow diagram for Broadbent?s filter model of
attention. This diagram shows that many messages enter a ?filter?
that selects the message to which the person is attending for
further processing by a detector and then storage in memory. We
will describe this diagram more fully in Chapter 4.
The Cognitive Revolution
Artificial Intelligence and Information Theory
- Artificial Intelligence
- ?making a machine behave in ways that would be called intelligent if a human were so behaving.? (McCarty et al., 1955)
- attempts to construct machines that show intelligence
- revealed that there are many different types of intelligence
- designed computer chess games that have ?intelligence?
- Newell and Simon created the logic theorist program that could apply rudimentary logic to creating mathematical theorems
Artificial Intelligence and Information Theory
Although the mind / computer analogy was beneficial, it soon became clear that computers and humans do not process information the same
- When it comes to this problem, 123,456,789 X 987,654,321, the computer has the advantage
- -When it comes to recognizing a familiar face, humans have the advantage
Modern Research in Cognitive Psychology
- How research progresses from question to question
- Start with what is known
- Ask questions
- Design experiments
- Obtain and interpret results
- Use results as the bases for new research questions and experiments
The Role of Models in Cognitive Psychology
- There are two kinds of models to be aware of:
Structural Models
Process Models
Structural Models
- Representations of a physical structure
- Mimic the form or appearance of a given object
Structural Models
Process Models
- Represent the processes that are involved in cognitive mechanisms, with boxes usually representing specific processes and arrows indicating connections between processes
Process Models
Chapter 2
Cognitive Neuroscience
Some Questions We Will Consider
- What is cognitive neuroscience, and why is it necessary?
- How is information transmitted from one place to another in the nervous system?
- How are things in the environment, such as faces and trees, represented in the brain?
- What does studying the brain tell us about cognition?
Cognitive Neuroscience
- The study of the physiological basis of cognition
- Involves an understanding of both the nervous system as well as the individual units that comprise that system
?The brain is the last and greatest biological frontier? the most complex thing we have yet discovered in the universe.?
James Watson,
co-discoverer of the structure of DNA
Cognitive Neuroscience
Levels of Analysis
- We do not examine topics of interest from a single perspective, but rather we look at them from multiple angles and different points of view
- Each ?viewpoint? can add small amounts of information which, when considered together, leads to greater understanding
Building Blocks of the Nervous System
- Neurons: cells specialized to create, receive, and transmit information in the nervous system
- Each neuron has a cell body, an axon, and dendrites
Nerve Nets
- The interconnections of neurons create a nerve net, which is like a continuous network that is similar to a highway
- One street connects to another but without stop signs
- This allows for almost nonstop, continuous communication of signals throughout the network
- Contradicted by the neuron doctrine
- Ramon y Cajal
- Individual nerve cells transmit signals, and are not continuous with other cells
Nerve Nets
*
Building Blocks of the Nervous System
- Cell body: contains mechanisms to keep cell alive
- Dendrites: multiple branches reaching from the cell body, which receives information from other neurons
- Axon: tube filled with fluid that transmits electrical signal to other neurons
Building Blocks of the Nervous System
*
Building Blocks of the Nervous System
- Sensory Neurons
- Take info to the brain
- Motor Neurons
- Take info away from the brain
- Interneurons
- Take info between sensory and motor neurons
How Neurons Communicate
- Action potential
- Neuron receives signal from environment
- Information travels down the axon of that neuron to the dendrites of another neuron
- Measuring action potentials
- Microelectrodes pick up electrical signal
- Placed near axon
- Active for ~1 second
How Neurons Communicate
*
How Neurons Communicate
- Measuring action potentials
- The size is not measured; size remains consistent
- The rate of firing is measured
- Low intensities: slow firing
- High intensities: fast firing
How Neurons Communicate
*
How Neurons Communicate
- Synapse: space between axon of one neuron and dendrite or cell body of another
- Neuron makes chemicals.
- Neuron transports chemicals to the synaptic vesicles for storage.
- Action potential causes release of chemicals.
- Neurotransmitters attach to receptor sites on postsynaptic membrane.
- Neurotransmitters split and are destroyed or taken up by membrane.
How Neurons Communicate
Representation in the Brain
- Hubel & Wiesel (1960s)
- won a Nobel Prize in 1981 for their work on neuronal firing.
- Feature detectors: neurons that respond best to a specific stimulus
- In the video presented below, an anesthetized cat is shown features. The clicking sound you hear is the sound of a neuron firing.
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jw6nBWo21Zk
- The simple neuron fires only when it sees a diagonal line in the exact space and orientation on the screen.
- The complex neuron fires to the vertical line only as right to left movement is detected, but not when it?s still.
- Some neurons are sensitive to which direction the line goes in.
- The hypercomplex cell responds only when the light moves a certain direction and only when it is a dot of light and not a line.
Representation in the Brain
Hierarchical Processing
- When we perceive different objects, we do so in a specific order that moves from lower to higher areas of the brain
- The ascension from lower to higher areas of the brain corresponds to perceiving objects that move from lower (simple) to higher levels of complexity
*
Representation in the Brain
- Specificity coding: representation of a specific stimulus by firing of specifically tuned neurons specialized to just respond to a specific stimulus
- Some people call this the grandmother neuron; it responds when you look at your grandmother
- Population coding: representation of a particular object by the pattern of firing of a large number of neurons
- Sparse coding: when a particular object is represented by a pattern of firing of only a small group of neurons, with the majority of neurons remaining silent
Representation in the Brain
Representation in the Brain
Representation in the Brain
Localization of Function
- Specific functions are served by specific areas of the brain
- Cognitive functioning breaks down in specific ways when areas of the brain are damaged
- Cerebral cortex (3-mm thick layer that covers the brain) contains mechanisms responsible for most of our cognitive functions
Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
0
*
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Localization of Function: Perception
- Primary receiving areas for the senses
- Occipital lobe: vision
- Parietal lobe: touch, temperature, pain
- Temporal lobe: hearing, taste, smell
- Coordination of information received from all senses
- Frontal lobe
Localization of Function: Language
- Language production is impaired by damage to Broca?s area
- Frontal lobe
- Language comprehension is impaired by damage to Wernicke?s area
- Temporal lobe
Localization of Function: Language
Double Dissociation
- When damage to one part of the brain causes function A to be absent while function B is present, and damage to another area causes function B to be absent while function A is present
- Allows us to identify functions that are controlled by different parts of the brain
Organization: Brain Imaging
- Magnetic Resonance Imaging
- Powerful magnet runs down the tube alongside of the body
- Hydrogen atoms are realigned on same axis in pulses
- As pulse turns off, atoms return to natural alignment and release energy which is recorded by machine
- Computer processes signal and produces an image
- Tissues low in water appear lighter in color and tissues higher in water appear darker in color
- Functional MRI (fMRI)
- Same as MRI but also tracks blood flow and oxygen levels
- Provides info over seconds rather than minutes
- http://screen.yahoo.com/new-york-times/mapping-highways-brain-113257410.html
Brain Imaging: Evidence for
Localization of Function
- Fusiform face area (FFA) responds specifically to faces
- Found in the temporal lobe
- Damage to this area causes prosopagnosia (inability to recognize faces)
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kviA4w4i-VA
- Parahippocampal place area (PPA) responds specifically to places (indoor/outdoor scenes)
- Found in the temporal lobe
- Extrastriate body area (EBA) responds specifically to pictures of bodies and parts of bodies
Brain Imaging: Evidence for
Localization of Function
Distributed Representation in the Brain
In addition to localization of function, specific functions are processed by many different areas of the brain
Many different areas may contribute to a function
May appear to contradict the notion of localization of function, but the two concepts are actually complementary
Distributed Representation in the Brain
Neural Networks
Groups of neurons or structures that are connected together
- 100 billion neurons in the brain
- 10-100 trillion synapses
- In cerebral cortex
- 10-30 billion neurons
- Each has 10,000-15,000 connections
= 1 million billion connections in this area alone
Can be examined using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
Chapter 3
Perception
Some Questions to Consider
- Why can two different people experience different perceptions in response to the same stimulus?
- How does perception depend on a person?s knowledge about characteristics of the environment?
- How does the brain become tuned to respond best to things likely to appear in the environment?
- How are perception and memory represented in the brain?
Perception Is?
- Experience resulting from stimulation of the senses
- Basic concepts
- Perceptions can change based on added information
- Involves a process similar to reasoning or problem solving
- Perceptions occur in conjunction with actions
*
Perception Is?
- It is possible that true human perceptual processes are unique to humans
- Attempts to create artificial forms of perception (machines) have been met with limited success, and each time have had problems that could not be solved
*
Why Is It So Difficult to
Design a Perceiving Machine?
- Inverse Projection Problem
- Refers to the task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on the retina
- Involves starting with the retinal image and then extending outward to the source of that image
- The brain e
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