Eleventh Edition
Cutlip and Center’s
Effective Public Relations
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Cutlip and Center’s
Effective Public Relations
Eleventh Edition
Glen M. Broom, Ph.D.
Professor Emeritus
Bey-Ling Sha, Ph.D., APR
Associate Professor
School of Journalism and Media Studies
San Diego State University
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To our students in our classrooms and former students
in the practice and academe, whose feedback and
contributions have helped shape the eleventh edition.
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7
BRiEf ContEnts
Preface 15
PaRt i Concept, Practitioners, Context, and Origins 25
Chapter 1 Introduction to Contemporary Public Relations 26
Chapter 2 Practitioners of Public Relations 48
Chapter 3 Organizational Settings 69
Chapter 4 Historical Origins and Evolution 98
PaRt ii Foundations 129
Chapter 5 Professionalism and Ethics 130
Chapter 6 Legal Considerations 151
Chapter 7 Theoretical Underpinnings: Adjustment and Adaptation 172
Chapter 8 Communication Theories and Contexts 191
Chapter 9 Internal Relations and Employee Communication 212
Chapter 10 External Media and Media Relations 233
PaRt iii Management Process 261
Chapter 11 Step One: Defining Public Relations Problems 262
Chapter 12 Step Two: Planning and Programming 287
Chapter 13 Step Three: Taking Action and Communicating 311
Chapter 14 Step Four: Evaluating the Program 336
PaRt iV The Practice 361
Chapter 15 Business and Industry 362
Chapter 16 Government and Politics 373
Chapter 17 Military Public Affairs 392
Chapter 18 Nonprofits and Nongovernmental Organizations 400
Chapter 19 Health Care 415
Chapter 20 Education 426
Chapter 21 Associations and Unions 435
7
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9
ContEnts
Preface 15
PaRt i Concept, Practitioners, Context,
and Origins 25
Chapter 1 Introduction to Contemporary Public Relations 26
Attempts to Define Public Relations 28
Defining Contemporary Public Relations 29
Confusion with Marketing 29
Parts of the Function 30
Confusion of Terms 42
Toward Recognition and Maturity 43
Notes 46 • Study Guide 47 • Additional Sources 47
Chapter 2 Practitioners of Public Relations 48
Numbers and Distribution 49
Salaries 52
Work Assignments 53
Roles 55
What Roles Research Tells us 58
Challenges 60
Requirements For Success 64
Notes 66 • Study Guide 68 • Additional Sources 68
Chapter 3 Organizational Settings 69
Origins Within Organizations 70
Public Relations Starts with Top Management 71
Role in Decision Making 73
The Internal Department 76
Working with other Departments 81
The Outside Counseling Firm 85
New Approaches 95
Notes 96 • Study Guide 97 • Additional Sources 97
Chapter 4 Historical Origins and Evolution 98
Ancient Genesis 98
American Beginnings: Born in Adversity and Change 99
Evolution to Maturity 105
Stages of Development 106
Seedbed Era: 1900–1916 107
10 Contents
World War I Period: 1917–1918 113
Booming Twenties Era: 1919–1929 115
Roosevelt Era and World War II: 1930–1945 118
Postwar Boom: 1946–1964 119
Period of Protest and Empowerment: 1965–1985 122
Digital Age and Globalization: 1986–Present 125
Notes 126 • Study Guide 128 • Additional Sources 128
PaRt ii Foundations 129
Chapter 5 Professionalism and Ethics 130
Criteria of a Profession 130
Professional Associations 131
Specialized Educational Preparation 136
Research and the Body of Knowledge 138
Ethical Foundations of Professionalism 140
Codes of Ethics 143
Accountability: Licensing and Accreditation 145
Winning Acceptance and Stature 147
Toward a Promising Future 147
Notes 149 • Study Guide 150 • Additional Sources 150
Chapter 6 Legal Considerations 151
What Is Law? 151
The First Amendment 152
Free Press and Media Relations 153
Government Access and Public Affairs 155
Corporate Expression 156
Lobbying 158
Employee and Labor Relations 159
Public Companies and Investor Relations 161
Protecting Public Relations Materials 163
Reputation, Defamation and Privacy 165
Litigation Public Relations 168
Closing Thoughts 169
Notes 169 • Study Guide 171 • Additional Sources 171
Chapter 7 Theoretical Underpinnings: Adjustment and Adaptation 172
The Ecological Approach 173
Tracking the Trends 173
A Systems Perspective 175
Open and Closed Systems 179
Goal States, Structure, and Process 180
Contents 11
Cybernetics in Open Systems 181
Open Systems Model of Public Relations 184
Notes 188 • Study Guide 189 • Additional Sources 189
Chapter 8 Communication Theories and Contexts 191
Dissemination Versus Communication 192
Elements of the Mass Communication Model 193
Mass Communication Effects 196
Public Opinion Contexts 201
Orientation and Coorientation 203
Notes 209 • Study Guide 211 • Additional Sources 211
Chapter 9 Internal Relations and Employee Communication 212
Importance of Internal Relations 213
Cultural Contexts 214
Regulatory and Business Contexts 218
Communicating Internally 221
Notes 230 • Study Guide 232 • Additional Sources 232
Chapter 10 External Media and Media Relations 233
Traditional Media, New Uses 234
New Media, New Challenges and Opportunities 245
Working with the Media 250
Notes 257 • Study Guide 260 • Additional Sources 260
PaRt iii Management Process 261
Chapter 11 Step One: Defining Public Relations Problems 262
Management Process 263
Role of Research in Strategic Planning 264
Research Attitude 266
Listening as Systematic Research 267
Defining Public Relations Problems 268
Research Methods 273
Informal or “Exploratory” Methods 274
Formal Methods 280
Notes 285 • Study Guide 286 • Additional Sources 286
Chapter 12 Step Two: Planning and Programming 287
Public Relations Goals 288
Public Relations Planning 289
Target Publics 291
Program Objectives 294
Strategies and Tactics 297
12 Contents
The Public Relations Plan 299
Planning for Program Implementation 304
Summary 308
Notes 308 • Study Guide 310 • Additional Sources 310
Chapter 13 Step Three: Taking Action and Communicating 311
The Action Program 312
The Communication Program 314
Message Content 315
Message Delivery 323
Barriers to Implementation 328
Crisis Communication 332
Implementation Summary 332
Notes 333 • Study Guide 335 • Additional Sources 335
Chapter 14 Step Four: Evaluating the Program 336
The Push for Measurable Results 337
Preparing for Evaluation 339
Evaluation Research Process 340
Evaluation Research Steps 341
Levels of Program Evaluation 343
Interpreting and Using Results of Evaluation 356
Notes 358 • Study Guide 359 • Additional Sources 359
PaRt iV The Practice 361
Chapter 15 Business and Industry 362
Public Relations in Corporate Organizations 363
Corporate Social Responsibility 364
Corporations as Targets 368
Business Misconduct 368
Restoring Public Trust 369
Globalization 370
Notes 371 • Study Guide 372 • Additional Sources 372
Chapter 16 Government and Politics 373
The Goals of Public Affairs in Government 374
Informing Constituents 374
Ensuring Active Cooperation in Government Programs 379
Fostering Citizen Participation and Support 380
Serving as the Public’s Advocate 382
Electronic Government and Citizen Participation 382
Managing Information Internally 383
Facilitating Media Relations 384
Contents 13
Building Community and Nation 384
Barriers to Effective Government Public Affairs 385
Government–Media Relations 388
Notes 390 • Study Guide 391 • Additional Sources 391
Chapter 17 Military Public Affairs 392
Public Relations Is Public Affairs in the Military 393
Unique Challenges in the Military Setting 394
The Need for Transparency and Engagement 395
Notes 399 • Study Guide 399 • Additional Sources 399
• Websites 399
Chapter 18 Nonprofits and Nongovernmental Organizations 400
The Third Sector 400
Role of Public Relations in Nonprofit Organizations 404
Foundations 407
Social Service Agencies 407
Faith-Based and Other Nonprofit Organizations 409
Nongovernmental Organizations 410
Notes 412 • Study Guide 414 • Additional Sources 414
Chapter 19 Health Care 415
Practicing in the Era of Health Reform 416
The Public Relations Difference in Health Care 417
Supporting, Promoting, and Protecting the Brand 418
Employee Communication in Health Care 420
Integrated Communication Enhances Results 421
Focusing Public Relations Efforts 421
Blurring of Traditional and Social Media 421
Proactively Managing and Mitigating Issues 423
A Voice at the Leadership Table 424
Notes 424 • Study Guide 425 • Additional Resources 425
Chapter 20 Education 426
Issues Impacting Education: Funding, Accountability, Choice 427
The Role of Public Relations for Public Schools 428
Issues Affecting Higher Education Public Relations 432
Notes 433 • Study Guide 434 • Additional Sources 434
Chapter 21 Associations and Unions 435
Associations 435
Labor Unions 440
Notes 443 • Study Guide 444 • Additional Sources 444
Index 445
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15
PREfaCE
Beginning with the first edition in 1952, Effective Public Relations (EPR) has introduced the
theory and principles of public relations, schooled its practitioners, and served as a reference
for those in the calling worldwide. This eleventh edition begins its seventh decade of advancing
public relations toward professional status.
WHAT’S NEW IN THE ELEVENTH EDITION OF EFFECTIVE
PUBLIC RELATIONS
• A new co-author brings new perspective, insight and content to the eleventh edition.
• Each chapter begins with “Learning Outcomes” and ends with related questions in a
“Study Guide.”
• Considerations of social media and other new media technologies are incorporated
throughout the text.
• New case examples and illustrations throughout give chapter content “real-world” context
and global perspective.
• New sections outline challenges faced by public relations practitioners, including those
related to diversity and professionalism.
• Expanded sections on measurement, evaluation and metrics.
• Legal aspects of public relations practice are more clearly articulated and presented in the
context of specific public relations concerns.
• New sections on message crafting, message framing, and message encoding and decoding
offer concrete, yet theory-grounded tips for message development.
• Five leading practitioners helped revise chapters on contemporary practice in Part 4 of the
text—The Practice.
• Seven new chapters on specific contexts of public relations practice accommodate the
increasing specialization of the profession—Business and Industry, Government and
Politics, Military Public Affairs, Nonprofits and Nongovernmental Organizations, Heath
Care, Education, and Associations and Unions.
EPR THrOugH THE YEArS
For many years, students and practitioners alike referred to the book simply as “Cutlip and
Center,” using the original authors’ names instead of the actual title. Scott M. Cutlip and Allen
H. Center created the book that made public relations education an academic area of study on
university and college campuses. Many of their ideas and ambitions in the early editions still
serve as beacons guiding public relations education and practice.
EPR is known to many as “the bible of public relations.” “After all,” as one longtime coun-
selor and consultant said, “It was Cutlip and Center, as much as anyone, who gave those of us
who strayed or wandered into the profession from journalism and other professional pursuits, a
sense of substance and legitimacy about practicing our adopted craft.”1
1Stephen H. Baer, Fellow, PRSA, writing in a book review published in Public Relations Review 18, no. 4 (Winter 1992): 392.
16 Preface
In the early years, EPR served as the comprehensive encyclopedia of public relations, but no
longer is that its role. The body of knowledge that today underpins both public relations educa-
tion and professional practice extends well beyond the limits of a single book or an introductory
course. Yet EPR remains the basic reference for the field worldwide. It is the public relations book
most frequently used by those preparing for accreditation examinations, most frequently cited in
public relations literature, most widely used in English worldwide, and most-often translated into
other languages. EPR has been translated into the languages of Bulgaria, China, Indonesia, Italy,
Japan, Korea, Latvia, Russia, and Spain. As one reviewer said, “ ‘Cutlip, Center, and Broom’ . . . [is]
the standard against which all basic public relations textbooks are measured.”2
Surely, Cutlip and Center created the franchise that remains Effective Public Relations, but
neither had been active after the sixth edition (1985). Cutlip died in 2000 and Center in 2005, but
their influence and ambitions for the field continue to be reflected in Cutlip and Center’s Effective
Public Relations, eleventh edition; thus, their names are again above the title. (Read more about
Cutlip and Center in Chapter 4, pages 97 and 98).
The many editions of EPR reflect an evolving practice based increasingly on professional
standards, theory, and principles, as well as on a requirement of specialized educational prepara-
tion for entry and advancement. This is Glen M. Broom’s sixth edition and Bey-Ling Sha’s first.
Keeping the book relevant is both our challenge and our commitment to maintaining its long-
time legacy in public relations. Our mission in this edition is to advance professional standards
in both public relations education and practice.
WHAT YOu WILL LEArN IN EPR
First, when you study this edition of EPR, you will learn basic concepts about what public relations
is and is not and how it evolved to today’s practice. Second, you will learn the values, theories,
principles, and management process that guide the practice. (Other public relations books
and courses cover writing techniques and detailed management case studies. EPR does not.)
Third, you will gain knowledge of updated information and examples to help you understand
contemporary public relations practice in a variety of settings. Each chapter begins with a list of
learning outcomes to help you focus your study and to master the material and ends with a list of
study questions to help you determine if you achieved the intended outcomes.
EPR comprises four parts: Part I (Chapters 1–4)—Concept, Practitioners, Context,
and Historical Origins; Part II (Chapters 5–10)—Foundations; Part III (Chapters 11–14)—
Management Process; and Part IV (Chapters 15–21)—The Practice.
In short, the book covers a broad range of public relations theory and practice. However,
EPR does not trivialize public relations by presenting brief, oversimplified case studies. Rather,
EPR gives you a foundation for subsequent courses and books devoted to developing and imple-
menting program tactics, and to analyzing in-depth cases. This also is not a chest-thumping
“how-I-saved-the-day” book that claims to show how to succeed in public relations without
having a foundation based on the body of knowledge.
Following is an annotated description of each chapter:
Chapter 1, “Introduction to Contemporary Public Relations,” introduces the concept of
contemporary public relations and defines terms often confused with the practice. Most impor-
tantly, it introduces a set of “core axioms” that spells out the principles and values central to
contemporary practice (Exhibit 1.4, page 23).
Chapter 2, “Practitioners of Public Relations,” presents recent data on employment, salary,
diversity, population demographic changes, and the feminization of the field. “Day in the Life
of . . . ” exhibits introduce you to practitioners’ work in internal departments and outside public
relations firms, as well as the roles they play in organizations.
2Donald K. Wright, “Review of Public Relations Literature: Basic Textbooks,” Public Relations Review 22, no. 4 (Winter
1996): 380.
Preface 17
Chapter 3, “Organizational Settings,” gives public relations work context by explaining
how organizational settings and other factors influence the practice and outlines how public
relations often begins and develops in organizations. The chapter also outlines the pluses and
minuses of establishing an internal department versus retaining outside counsel and presents
data on major national and international firms.
Chapter 4, “Historical Origins and Evolution,” describes how the practice has evolved,
identifies historical leaders who led the evolution, and traces the origins of current practice.
In addition to discussing the contributions of founders such as Ivy Lee, Edward Bernays, and
Doris Fleischman, the chapter features the contributions of twentieth-century leaders, including
Harold Burson, Allen Center, Scott Cutlip, Daniel Edelman, Tim Traverse-Healy, Inez Kaiser,
and Betsy Plank.
Chapter 5, “Professionalism and Ethics,” introduces the professional and ethical principles
that underpin the practice. Supplemental exhibits document the development of public relations
outside the United States, particularly in Australia, Sweden, and China, as well as with The Global
Alliance for Public Relations and Communication Management. The chapter also outlines the
professionalization of the field through specialized education, accreditation, and licensing.
Chapter 6, “Legal Considerations,” summarizes the legal considerations vital to public rela-
tions practice in the United States and gives examples of how the law in other countries impacts
the practice. Sections regarding the First Amendment, public access to government information,
corporate expression, lobbying, employee and labor relations, investor relations, copyright law,
defamation, and privacy all explicitly connect legal issues to specific areas and elements of public
relations practice.
Chapter 7, “Theoretical Underpinnings: Adjustment and Adaptation,” outlines a
theoretical foundation for the practice—systems theory. It distinguishes between an “open
system” approach and the reactive “closed system,” approach that all too often characterizes
the practice. Based on the systems perspective of how organizations adjust and adapt to
environmental change pressures, the discussion concludes with a presentation of an open
systems model for public relations.
Chapter 8, “Communication Theories and Contexts,” presents communication and public
opinion theories and models essential to understanding the function of public relations in
organizations and society. Within a systems theory framework, the chapter outlines the major
effects of public relations communication and the contexts and dimensions of public opinion. It
concludes with a discussion of individual orientation, social consensus, and organization–public
relationships.
Chapter 9, “Internal Relations and Employee Communication,” defines the intra-
organizational part of public relations practice and its role in organizations. It discusses
organizational culture and the application of systems theory to employee communication
programs. It also covers the major goals of employee communication, the regulatory aspects of
internal relations, and traditional and new media for communicating with internal publics.
Chapter 10, “ External Media and Media Relations,” provides detailed discussion of the
traditional and new media for communicating program messages to external publics. It also
covers new uses of old media and how new media—blogs, e-mail, social media, and so on—have
changed organization–public interactions in the digital communication world. The chapter
concludes with a discussion of how to work with the media in order to build and maintain good
media relations.
Chapter 11, “ Step One: Defining Public Relations Problems,” applies theory to practice
by outlining the “four-step public relations process.” The model demonstrates the logic of using
research to “benchmark” the beginning of the program by defining problems and setting pro-
gram goals. (The model is repeated in Chapter 14 to illustrate the three phases of evaluation and
to close the loop on benchmarking.) Chapter 11 discusses the differences between informal and
formal research methods and describes technology used to gather data for detecting, exploring,
and describing public relations situations.
18 Preface
Chapter 12, “Step Two: Planning and Programming,” builds a rationale for strategic
planning, using many examples to illustrate key concepts. It expands the traditional four-step
public relations process presented in Chapter 11 into a detailed 10-step strategic planning outline,
clarifying the difference between strategy and tactics. The steps include how to identify publics,
how to write objectives for each target public, and how to apply working theory to developing
program strategy.
Chapter 13, “Step Three: Taking Action and Communicating,” illustrates major tactics
for implementing program strategy, grounding them in theoretical principles. It emphasizes
that taking action is necessary—particularly corrective action—in addition to communication.
Examples from practice illustrate crafting, framing, and disseminating effective messages. The
discussion also covers the diffusion process and the role of opinion leaders in public relations
communication.
Chapter 14, “Step Four: Evaluating the Program,” outlines how to track program progress
and how to assess impact. The discussion of the three phases of program evaluation— preparation,
implementation, and impact—includes numerous models and examples to illustrate and clar-
ify the steps of program evaluation. The chapter also covers practical research methods used in
program evaluation, including a discussion of how to use content analysis for tracking program
implementation and survey research to measure program impact.
Chapter 15, “Business and Industry,” outlines how the practice in corporate settings is
different from that in other settings. In addition, the chapter describes the role of public rela-
tions in corporate social responsibility, corporate philanthropy, and corporate finance. It reflects
the growing interest in protecting corporate reputations and building public trust following two
decades of corporate scandals and financial malfeasance exposés. The discussion also addresses
social media and globalization, as well as their impact on corporate practice.
Chapter 16, “Government and Politics,” covers the goals of government public relations, or
as it is called in government—“public affairs.” Goals include informing constituents, promoting
citizen participation, advocating public views to government decision makers, managing internal
communication, facilitating media relations, and supporting social and development programs.
Additionally, the chapter describes barriers to effective government practice, explains how tech-
nology is changing government public affairs, and discusses public affairs’ role in international
relations.
Chapter 17, “Military …
