Culture
3
FIGURE 3.1 Martial arts has a strong tradition of deep respect for one’s opponent, as these judo competitors
display after a match. Even in other styles and other venues such as professional boxing or mixed martial arts, it is
common to see opponents showing extreme courtesy and concern for each other despite the level of vitriol before a
fight or the violence during it. While certainly echoed in other competitive arenas, this practice is a significant part of
combat sports culture. (Credit: Special Olympics Nationale/flickr)
CHAPTER OUTLINE
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
What Is Culture?
Elements of Culture
High, Low, Pop, Sub, Counter-culture and Cultural Change
Theoretical Perspectives on Culture
INTRODUCTION If you passed someone in a hallway, joined a video conference, or even called into a radio
show, it’s likely you and the other people involved would exchange some version of the following question :
“How are you?” One of you may ask the other. You may exchange a greeting and the question or one of its
variants. Generally, we do not consider our responses to these acquaintances as rules. We simply say, “Hello!”
and ask, “How was your weekend?” or some other trivial question meant to be a friendly greeting.
We all adhere to various rules, expectations, and standards that are created and maintained in our specific
culture. These rules and expectations have meaning, and there are many ways by which the meanings can be
misinterpreted or misunderstood. When we do not meet those expectations, we may receive some form of
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disapproval such as a look or comment informing us that we did something unacceptable.
Consider what would happen if you stopped and informed everyone who asked “Hi, how are you?” exactly how
you were doing that day, and in detail. In U.S. society, you would violate norms of ‘greeting.’ Perhaps if you were
in a different situation, such as having coffee with a good friend, that question might warrant a detailed
response.
These examples are all aspects of culture, which is comprised of shared values (ideals), beliefs which
strengthen the values, norms and rules that maintain the values, language so that the values can be taught,
symbols that form the language people must learn, arts and artifacts, and the people’s collective identities and
memories. Sociologically, we examine in which situation and context a certain behavior is expected and in
which it is not. People who interact within a shared culture create and enforce these expectations. Sociologists
examine these circumstances and search for patterns.
In everyday conversation, people in the U.S. rarely distinguish between the terms culture and society, but the
terms have different meanings, and the distinction is important to a sociologist. A culture represents the
values, beliefs, norms, language, symbols, and practices of a group, while society represents the people who
share a culture. Neither society or culture could exist without the other.
Within the U.S., many groups of people share a community and a culture. By “community,” sociologists refer to
a definable region of a society, real terra firma—as small as a neighborhood (Brooklyn, or “the east side of
town”), as large as a country (Ethiopia, Nepal or the U.S.), or somewhere in between (in the U.S., this might
include someone who identifies with Southern or Midwestern society).
In this chapter, we examine the relationship between culture and society in greater detail and pay special
attention to the elements and forces that shape culture, including diversity and social changes. A final
discussion examines the theoretical perspectives from which sociologists research culture.
3.1 What Is Culture?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
• Differentiate between culture and society
• Explain material versus nonmaterial culture
• Discuss the concept of cultural universals as it relates to society
• Compare and contrast ethnocentrism and xenocentrism
Humans are social creatures. According to Smithsonian Institution research, humans have been forming
groups for almost 3 million years in order to survive. Living together, people formed common habits and
behaviors, from specific methods of childrearing to preferred techniques for obtaining food.
Almost every human behavior, from shopping to marriage, is learned. In the U.S., marriage is generally seen as
an individual choice made by two adults, based on mutual feelings of love. In other nations and in other times,
marriages have been arranged through an intricate process of interviews and negotiations between entire
families. In Papua New Guinea, almost 30 percent of women marry before the age of 18, and 8 percent of men
have more than one wife (National Statistical Office, 2019). To people who are not from such a culture,
arranged marriages may seem to have risks of incompatibility or the absence of romantic love. But many
people from cultures where marriages are arranged, which includes a number of highly populated and
modern countries, often prefer the approach because it reduces stress and increases stability (Jankowiak
2021).
Being familiar with unwritten rules helps people feel secure and at ease. Knowing to look left instead of right
for oncoming traffic while crossing the street can help avoid serious injury and even death. Knowing unwritten
rules is also fundamental in understanding humor in different cultures. Humor is common to all societies, but
what makes something funny is not. Americans may laugh at a scene in which an actor falls; in other cultures,
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3.1 • What Is Culture?
falling is never funny. Most people want to live their daily lives confident that their behaviors will not be
challenged or disrupted. But even an action as seemingly simple as commuting to work evidences a great deal
of cultural propriety, that is, there are a lot of expected behaviors. And many interpretations of them.
FIGURE 3.2 How would a visitor from a rural region act and feel on this crowded Hong Kong train? (Credit: Eric
Chan/flickr)
Take the case of going to work on public transportation. Whether people are commuting in Egypt, Ireland,
India, Japan, and the U.S., many behaviors will be the same and may reveal patterns. Others will be different.
In many societies that enjoy public transportation, a passenger will find a marked bus stop or station, wait for
the bus or train, pay an agent before or after boarding, and quietly take a seat if one is available. But when
boarding a bus in Cairo, Egypt, passengers might board while the bus is moving, because buses often do not
come to a full stop to take on patrons. In Dublin, Ireland, bus riders would be expected to extend an arm to
indicate that they want the bus to stop for them. And when boarding a commuter train in Mumbai, India,
passengers must squeeze into overstuffed cars amid a lot of pushing and shoving on the crowded platforms.
That kind of behavior might be considered rude in other societies, but in Mumbai it reflects the daily
challenges of getting around on a train system that is taxed to capacity.
Culture can be material or nonmaterial. Metro passes and bus tokens are part of material culture, as are the
buses, subway cars, and the physical structures of the bus stop. Think of material culture as items you can
touch-they are tangible. Nonmaterial culture, in contrast, consists of the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a
society. These are things you cannot touch. They are intangible. You may believe that a line should be formed
to enter the subway car or that other passengers should not stand so close to you. Those beliefs are intangible
because they do not have physical properties and can be touched.
Material and nonmaterial aspects of culture are linked, and physical objects often symbolize cultural ideas. A
metro pass is a material object, but it represents a form of nonmaterial culture, namely, capitalism, and the
acceptance of paying for transportation. Clothing, hairstyles, and jewelry are part of material culture, but the
appropriateness of wearing certain clothing for specific events reflects nonmaterial culture. A school building
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belongs to material culture symbolizing education, but the teaching methods and educational standards are
part of education’s nonmaterial culture.
As people travel from different regions to entirely different parts of the world, certain material and
nonmaterial aspects of culture become dramatically unfamiliar. What happens when we encounter different
cultures? As we interact with cultures other than our own, we become more aware of the differences and
commonalities between others and our own. If we keep our sociological imagination awake, we can begin to
understand and accept the differences. Body language and hand gestures vary around the world, but some
body language seems to be shared across cultures: When someone arrives home later than permitted, a parent
or guardian meeting them at the door with crossed arms and a frown on their face means the same in Russia
as it does in the U.S. as it does in Ghana.
Cultural Universals
Although cultures vary, they also share common elements. Cultural universals are patterns or traits that are
globally common to all societies. One example of a cultural universal is the family unit: every human society
recognizes a family structure that regulates sexual reproduction and the care of children. Even so, how that
family unit is defined and how it functions vary. In many Asian cultures, for example, family members from all
generations commonly live together in one household. In these cultures, young adults continue to live in the
extended household family structure until they marry and join their spouse’s household, or they may remain
and raise their nuclear family within the extended family’s homestead. In the U.S., by contrast, individuals are
expected to leave home and live independently for a period before forming a family unit that consists of
parents and their offspring. Other cultural universals include customs like funeral rites, weddings, and
celebrations of births. However, each culture may view and conduct the ceremonies quite differently.
Anthropologist George Murdock first investigated the existence of cultural universals while studying systems
of kinship around the world. Murdock found that cultural universals often revolve around basic human
survival, such as finding food, clothing, and shelter, or around shared human experiences, such as birth and
death or illness and healing. Through his research, Murdock identified other universals including language,
the concept of personal names, and, interestingly, jokes. Humor seems to be a universal way to release
tensions and create a sense of unity among people (Murdock, 1949). Sociologists consider humor necessary to
human interaction because it helps individuals navigate otherwise tense situations.
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Is Music a Cultural Universal?
Imagine that you are sitting in a theater, watching a film. The movie opens with the protagonist sitting on a park
bench with a grim expression on their face. The music starts to come in. The first slow and mournful notes play in
a minor key. As the melody continues, the heroine turns her head and sees a man walking toward her. The music
gets louder, and the sounds don’t seem to go together – as if the orchestra is intentionally playing the wrong
notes. You tense up as you watch, almost hoping to stop. The character is clearly in danger.
Now imagine that you are watching the same movie – the exact same footage – but with a different soundtrack.
As the scene opens, the music is soft and soothing, with a hint of sadness. You see the protagonist sitting on the
park bench with a grim expression. Suddenly, the music swells. The woman looks up and sees a man walking
toward her. The notes are high and bright, and the pace is bouncy. You feel your heart rise in your chest. This is a
happy moment.
Music has the ability to evoke emotional responses. In television shows, movies, commercials, and even the
background music in a store, music has a message and seems to easily draw a response from those who hear it –
joy, sadness, fear, victory. Are these types of musical cues cultural universals?
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In 2009, a team of psychologists, led by Thomas Fritz of the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain
Sciences in Leipzig, Germany, studied people’s reactions to music that they’d never heard (Fritz et al., 2009). The
research team traveled to Cameroon, Africa, and asked Mafa tribal members to listen to Western music. The
tribe, isolated from Western culture, had never been exposed to Western culture and had no context or
experience within which to interpret its music. Even so, as the tribal members listened to a Western piano piece,
they were able to recognize three basic emotions: happiness, sadness, and fear. Music, the study suggested, is a
sort of universal language.
Researchers also found that music can foster a sense of wholeness within a group. In fact, scientists who study
the evolution of language have concluded that originally language (an established component of group identity)
and music were one (Darwin, 1871). Additionally, since music is largely nonverbal, the sounds of music can cross
societal boundaries more easily than words. Music allows people to make connections, where language might be
a more difficult barricade. As Fritz and his team found, music and the emotions it conveys are cultural universals.
Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism
Although human societies have much in common, cultural differences are far more prevalent than cultural
universals. For example, while all cultures have language, analysis of conversational etiquette reveals
tremendous differences. In some Middle Eastern cultures, it is common to stand close to others in
conversation. Americans keep more distance and maintain a large “personal space.” Additionally, behaviors as
simple as eating and drinking vary greatly from culture to culture. Some cultures use tools to put the food in
the mouth while others use their fingers. If your professor comes into an early morning class holding a mug of
liquid, what do you assume they are drinking? In the U.S., it’s most likely filled with coffee, not Earl Grey tea, a
favorite in England, or Yak Butter tea, a staple in Tibet.
Some travelers pride themselves on their willingness to try unfamiliar foods, like the late celebrated food
writer Anthony Bourdain (1956-2017). Often, however, people express disgust at another culture’s cuisine.
They might think that it’s gross to eat raw meat from a donkey or parts of a rodent, while they don’t question
their own habit of eating cows or pigs.
Such attitudes are examples of ethnocentrism, which means to evaluate and judge another culture based on
one’s own cultural norms. Ethnocentrism is believing your group is the correct measuring standard and if
other cultures do not measure up to it, they are wrong. As sociologist William Graham Sumner (1906)
described the term, it is a belief or attitude that one’s own culture is better than all others. Almost everyone is a
little bit ethnocentric.
A high level of appreciation for one’s own culture can be healthy. A shared sense of community pride, for
example, connects people in a society. But ethnocentrism can lead to disdain or dislike of other cultures and
could cause misunderstanding, stereotyping, and conflict. Individuals, government, non-government, private,
and religious institutions with the best intentions sometimes travel to a society to “help” its people, because
they see them as uneducated, backward, or even inferior. Cultural imperialism is the deliberate imposition of
one’s own cultural values on another culture.
Colonial expansion by Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, and England grew quickly in the fifteenth century was
accompanied by severe cultural imperialism. European colonizers often viewed the people in these new lands
as uncultured savages who needed to adopt Catholic governance, Christianity, European dress, and other
cultural practices.
A modern example of cultural imperialism may include the work of international aid agencies who introduce
agricultural methods and plant species from developed countries into areas that are better served by
indigenous varieties and agricultural approaches to the particular region. Another example would be the
deforestation of the Amazon Basin as indigenous cultures lose land to timber corporations.
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FIGURE 3.3 Experiencing an entirely new practice may lead to a high degree of interest or a level of criticism. The
Indegenous people of Sagada, in the Philippines, have for thousands of years placed the bodies of deceased people
into coffins hung on the cliffs near their villages. Some visitors may find this practice admirable, while others may
think it’s inappropriate. (Credit: Arian Zwegers/flickr)
When people find themselves in a new culture, they may experience disorientation and frustration. In
sociology, we call this culture shock. In addition to the traveler’s biological clock being ‘off’, a traveler from
Chicago might find the nightly silence of rural Montana unsettling, not peaceful. Now, imagine that the
‘difference’ is cultural. An exchange student from China to the U.S. might be annoyed by the constant
interruptions in class as other students ask questions—a practice that is considered rude in China. Perhaps the
Chicago traveler was initially captivated with Montana’s quiet beauty and the Chinese student was originally
excited to see a U.S.- style classroom firsthand. But as they experience unanticipated differences from their
own culture, they may experience ethnocentrism as their excitement gives way to discomfort and doubts about
how to behave appropriately in the new situation. According to many authors, international students studying
in the U.S. report that there are personality traits and behaviors expected of them. Black African students
report having to learn to ‘be Black in the U.S.’ and Chinese students report that they are naturally expected to
be good at math. In African countries, people are identified by country or kin, not color. Eventually, as people
learn more about a culture, they adapt to the new culture for a variety of reasons.
Culture shock may appear because people aren’t always expecting cultural differences. Anthropologist Ken
Barger (1971) discovered this when he conducted a participatory observation in an Inuit community in the
Canadian Arctic. Originally from Indiana, Barger hesitated when invited to join a local snowshoe race. He knew
he would never hold his own against these experts. Sure enough, he finished last, to his mortification. But the
tribal members congratulated him, saying, “You really tried!” In Barger’s own culture, he had learned to value
victory. To the Inuit people, winning was enjoyable, but their culture valued survival skills essential to their
environment: how hard someone tried could mean the difference between life and death. Over the course of
his stay, Barger participated in caribou hunts, learned how to take shelter in winter storms, and sometimes
went days with little or no food to share among tribal members. Trying hard and working together, two
nonmaterial values, were indeed much more important than winning.
During his time with the Inuit tribe, Barger learned to engage in cultural relativism. Cultural relativism is the
practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one’s own
culture. Practicing cultural relativism requires an open mind and a willingness to consider, and even adapt to,
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3.1 • What Is Culture?
new values, norms, and practices.
However, indiscriminately embracing everything about a new culture is not always possible. Even the most
culturally relativist people from egalitarian societies—ones in which women have political rights and control
over their own bodies—question whether the widespread practice of female genital mutilation in countries
such as Ethiopia and Sudan should be accepted as a part of cultural tradition. Sociologists attempting to
engage in cultural relativism, then, may struggle to reconcile aspects of their own culture with aspects of a
culture that they are studying. Sociologists may take issue with the practices of female genital mutilation in
many countries to ensure virginity at marriage just as some male sociologists might take issue with scarring of
the flesh to show membership. Sociologists work diligently to keep personal biases out of research analysis.
Sometimes when people attempt to address feelings of ethnocentrism and develop cultural relativism, they
swing too far to the other end of the spectrum. Xenocentrism is the opposite of ethnocentrism, and refers to
the belief that another culture is superior to one’s own. (The Greek root word xeno-, pronounced “ZEE-no,”
means “stranger” or “foreign guest.”) An exchange student who goes home after a semester abroad or a
sociologist who returns from the field may find it difficult to associate with the values of their own culture after
having experienced what they deem a more upright or nobler way of living. An opposite reaction is
xenophobia, an irrational fear or hatred of different cultures.
Perhaps the greatest challenge for sociologists studying different cultures is the matter of keeping a
perspective. It is impossible for anyone to overcome all cultural biases. The best we can do is strive to be aware
of them. Pride in one’s own culture doesn’t have to lead to imposing its values or ideas on others. And an
appreciation for another culture shouldn’t preclude individuals from studying it with a critical eye. This
practice is perhaps the most difficult for all social scientists.
SOCIOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Overcoming Culture Shock
During her summer vacation, Caitlin flew from Chicago, Illinois to Madrid, Spain to visit Maria, the exchange student
she had befriended the previous semester. In the airport, she heard rapid, musical Spanish being spoken all around
her.
Exciting as it was, she felt isolated and disconnected. Maria’s mother kissed Caitlin on both cheeks when she
greeted her. Her imposing father kept his distance. Caitlin was half asleep by the time supper was served—at 10
p.m. Maria’s family sat at the table for hours, speaking loudly, gesturing, and arguing about politics, a taboo dinner
subject in Caitlin’s house. They served wine and toasted their honored guest. Caitlin had trouble interpreting her
hosts’ facial expressions, and did not realize she should make the next toast. That night, Caitlin crawled into a
strange bed, wishing she had not come. She missed her home and felt overwhelmed by the new customs, language,
and surroundings. She’d studied Spanish in school for years—why hadn’t it prepared her for this?
What Caitlin did not realize was that people depend not only on spoken words but also on body language, like
gestures and facial expressions, to communicate. Cultural norms and practices accompany even the smallest
nonverbal signals (DuBois, 1951). They help people know when to shake hands, where to sit, how to converse, and
even when to laugh. We relate to others through a shared set of cultural norms, and ordinarily, we take them for
granted.
For this reason, culture shock is often associated with traveling abroad, although it can happen in one’s own country,
state, or even hometown. Anthropologist Kalervo Oberg (1960) is credited with first coining the term “culture
shock.” In his studies, Oberg found that most people are excited at first to encounter a new culture. But bit by bit,
they become stressed by interacting with people from a different culture who speak another language and use
different regional expressions. There is new food to digest, new daily schedules to follow, and new rules of etiquette
to learn. Living with this constant stress can make people feel incompetent and insecure. People react to frustration
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in a new culture, Oberg found, by initially rejecting it and glorifying one’s own culture. An American visiting Italy
might long for a “real” pizza or complain about the unsafe driving habits of Italians.
It helps to remember that culture is learned. Everyone is ethnocentric to an extent, and identifying with one’s own
country is natural. Caitlin’s shock was minor compared to that of her friends Dayar and Mahlika, a Turkish couple
living in married student housing on campus. And it was nothing like that of her classmate Sanai. Sanai had been
forced to flee war-torn Bosnia with her family when she was fifteen. After two weeks in Spain, Caitlin had developed
more compassion and understanding for what those people had gone through. She understood that adjusting to a
new culture takes time. It can take weeks or months to recover from culture shock, and it can take years to fully
adjust to living in a new culture.
By the end of Caitlin’s trip, she had made new lifelong friends. Caitlin stepped out of her comfort zone. She had
learned a lot about Spain, but discovered a lot about herself and her own culture.
FIGURE 3.4 Experiencing new cultures offers an opportunity to practice cultural relativism. (Credit: OledSidorenko/
flickr)
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3.2 • Elements of Culture
3.2 Elements of Culture
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
• Differentiate values, beliefs, and norms
• Explain the significance of symbols and language to a culture
• Explain the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
• Discuss the role of social control within culture
Values and Beliefs
The first, and perhaps most crucial, elements of culture we will discuss are values and beliefs. Value does not
mean monetary worth in sociology, but rather ideals, or principles and standards members of a culture hold in
high regard. Most cultures in any society hold “knowledge” (education) in high regard. Values are deeply
embedded and are critical for learning a culture’s beliefs, which are the tenets or convictions that people hold
to be true. Individual cultures in a society have personal beliefs, but they also shared collective values. To
illustrate the difference, U.S. citizens may believe in the American Dream—that anyone who works hard
enough will be successful and wealthy. Underlying this belief is the American value that wealth is important. In
other cultures, success may be tied less to wealth and more to having many healthy children. Values shape a
society by suggesting what is good and bad, beautiful and ugly, sought or avoided.
Consider the value that the U.S. places upon youth. Children represent innocence and purity, while a youthful
adult appearance signifies sexuality. Shaped by this value, individuals spend millions of dollars each year on
cosmetic products and surgeries to look young and beautiful. The U.S. also has an individualistic culture,
meaning people place a high value on individuality and independence. In contrast, many other cultures are
collectivist, meaning the welfare of the group takes priority over that of the individual. Fulfilling a society’s
values can be difficult. Marital monogamy is valued, but many spouses engage in infidelity. Cultural diversity
and equal opportunities for all people are valued in the U.S., yet the country’s highest political offices have
been dominated by white men.
Values often suggest how people should behave, but they don’t accurately reflect how people do behave. Values
portray an ideal culture, the standards society would like to embrace and live up to. But ideal culture differs
from real culture. In an ideal culture, there would be no traffic accidents, murders, poverty, or racial tension.
But in real culture, police officers, lawmakers, educators, and social workers constantly strive to prevent or
address these issues. American teenagers are encouraged to value celibacy. However, the number of
unplanned pregnancies among teens reveals that the ideal alone is not enough to spare teenagers the potential
consequences of having sex.
One of the ways societies strive to maintain its values is through rewards and punishments. When people
observe the norms of society and uphold its values, they are often rewarded. A boy who helps an elderly
woman board a bus may receive a smile and a “thank you.” A business manager who raises profit margins may
receive a quarterly bonus. People sanction unwanted or inappropriate behaviors by withholding support,
approval, or permission, or by implementing sanctions. We may think of ‘sanction’ as a negative term, but
sanctions are forms of social control, ways to encourage conformity to cultural norms or rules. Sometimes
people conform to norms in anticipation or expectation of positive sanctions. Receiving good grades, for
instance, may mean praise from parents and teachers. Sanctions can also be negative. . A boy who shoves an
elderly woman aside to board the bus first may receive frowns or even a scolding from other passengers. A
business manager who drives away customers will likely be fired. Breaking norms and rejecting values can
lead to cultural sanctions such as earning a negative label like ‘lazy’ or to legal sanctions, such as traffic tickets,
fines, or imprisonment. Utilizing social control encourages most people to conform regardless of whether
authority figures (such as law enforcement) are present.
Values are not static. They change across time and between groups as people evaluate, debate, and change
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collective social beliefs. Values also vary from culture to culture. For example, cultures differ in their values
about what kinds of physical closeness are appropriate in public. It’s rare to see two male friends or coworkers
holding hands in the U.S. where that behavior often symbolizes romantic feelings. But in many nations,
masculine physical intimacy is considered natural in public. This difference in cultural values came to light
when people reacted to photos of former president G.W. Bush holding hands with the Crown Prince of Saudi
Arabia in 2005. Simple gestures, such as hand-holding, carry great symbolic differences across cultures.
FIGURE 3.5 In many parts of Africa and the Middle East, it is considered normal for men to hold hands in friendship.
How would US citizens react to these two soldiers? (Credit: Geordie Mott/Wikimedia Commons)
Norms
So far, many of the examples in this chapter have described how people are expected to behave in certain
situations—for example, buying food or boarding a bus. These examples describe the visible and invisible rules
of conduct through which societies are structured, or what sociologists call norms. Norms are behaviors that
reflect compliance with what cultures and societies have defined as good, right, and important. Most members
adhere to them.
Formal norms are established, written rules existing in all societies. They support many social institutions,
such as the military, criminal justice and healthcare systems, and public schools. Functionalists may question
what purpose these norms serve, conflict theorists might be interested in who creates, benefits, and suffers
under these formal norms, and symbolic interactionists wonder about how a group that benefits interacts.
Laws are formal norms, but so are employee manuals, college entrance exam requirements, and “no running”
signs at swimming pools. Formal norms are the most specific and clearly stated of the various types of norms,
and they are the most strictly enforced. But they are enforced to varying degrees.
For example, private property is highly valued in the U.S. Thieves can be fined, imprisoned, or both. People
safeguard valuable possessions by locking their doors, buying a safe, and installing alarm systems on homes
and cars. A less strictly enforced social norm is driving while intoxicated. While it’s against the law to drive
drunk, drinking is for the most part an acceptable social behavior. And though there are laws to punish drunk
driving, there are few systems in place to prevent the crime.
There are plenty of formal norms, but the list of informal norms—casual behaviors that are generally and
widely conformed to—is longer. People learn informal norms by observation, imitation, and general
socialization. Some informal norms are taught directly— “Kiss your Aunt Edna” or “Use your napkin”—while
others are learned by observation, including understanding consequences when someone else violates a
norm. Informal norms dictate appropriate behaviors without the need of written rules, and so may be difficult
to learn when you are new to or not familiar with the culture.
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Although informal norms define personal interactions, they extend into other systems as well. In the U.S.,
there are informal norms regarding behavior at fast food restaurants. Customers line up to order their food
and leave when they are done. They don’t sit down at a table with strangers, sing loudly as they prepare their
condiments, or nap in a booth. Most people don’t commit even harmless breaches of informal norms.
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Breaching Experiments
Sociologist Harold Garfinkel (1917–2011) studied people’s customs in order to find out how societal rules and
norms not only influence behavior but also shape social order. He believed that members of society together
create a social order (Weber, 2011). His resulting book, Studies in Ethno-methodology (1967) discusses people’s
assumptions about the social makeup of their communities.
One of Garfinkel’s research methods was known as a “breaching experiment,” in which the researcher behaves in
a socially awkward manner in order to test the sociological concepts of social norms and conformity. The
participants are not aware an experiment is in progress, but their response is recorded. For example, if the
experimenter is, say, a man in a business suit, and he skips down the sidewalk or hops on one foot, a passersby is
likely to stare at him with surprised expressions. But the experimenter does not simply “act weird” in public.
Rather, the point is to deviate from a specific social norm in a small way, to subtly break some form of social
etiquette, and see what happens.
For example, he set up a simple game of tic-tac-toe. One player was asked beforehand to mark Xs and Os not in
the boxes but on the lines dividing the spaces instead. The other player, in the dark about the study, was
flabbergasted and did not know how to continue. The second player’s outrage, anger, puzzlement, or other
emotion suggested that a cultural norms had been violated.
There are many rules about speaking with strangers in public. It is okay to tell a woman you like her shoes. It is
not okay to ask if you can try them on. It is okay to stand in line behind someone at the ATM. It is not okay to look
over his shoulder as he makes a transaction. It is okay to sit beside someone on a crowded bus. It’s weird to sit
beside a stranger in a half-empty bus.
For some breaches, the researcher directly engages with innocent bystanders. An experimenter might strike up a
conversation in a public bathroom, where it’s common to respect each other’s privacy. In a grocery store, an
experimenter might take a food item out of another person’s grocery cart, saying, “That looks good! I think I’ll try
it.” An experimenter might sit down at a table with others in a fast-food restaurant or follow someone around a
museum and study the same paintings. In those cases, the bystanders are pressured to respond, and their
discomfort illustrates how much we depend on social norms. Breaching experiments uncover and explore the
many unwritten social rules we live by.
Norms may be further classified as either mores or folkways. Mores (mor-ays) are norms that embody the
moral views and principles of a group. They often have a religious foundation. Violating them can have serious
consequences. The strongest mores are protected with laws and other formal sanctions. In most societies, for
instance, homicide is considered immoral, and it’s punishable by law (a formal norm). But more often, mores
are judged and guarded by public sentiment (an informal norm). People who violate mores are seen as
shameful. They can even be shunned or banned from some groups.
The mores of the U.S. school system require that a student’s writing be in the student’s own words or use
special forms (such as quotation marks and a whole system of citation) for crediting other writers. Submitting
or publishing another person’s words as if they are one’s own has a name—plagiarism. The consequences for
violating this norm are often severe and can result in expulsion from school or termination from employment.
Unlike mores, folkways are norms without any moral underpinnings. Rather, folkways direct appropriate
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behavior in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture. We can think of them as ‘traditions’—things
we do because we ‘always have.’ They indicate whether to shake hands or kiss on the cheek when greeting
another person. They specify whether to wear a tie and blazer or a T-shirt and sandals to an event. In Canada,
women can smile and say hello to men on the street. In Egypt, that’s not acceptable. In regions in the southern
U.S., bumping into an acquaintance means stopping to chat. It’s considered rude not to, no matter how busy
one is. In other regions, people guard their privacy and value time efficiency. A simple nod of the head is
enough. Other accepted folkways in the U.S. may include holding the door open for a stranger or giving
someone a gift on their birthday. The rules regarding these folkways may change from culture to culture. A
folkway in one culture could be extremely rude in another.
Folkways are actions that people everywhere take for granted. People need to act without thinking in order to
get seamlessly through daily routines. They can’t stop and analyze every action (Sumner, 1906). Folkways
might be small actions, learned by observation and imitated, but they are by no means trivial. An important
folkway in many cultures is kissing Grandmother on the cheek. Fail to do so and you will likely be scolded.
Symbols and Culture
Humans, consciously and subconsciously, are always striving to make sense of their surrounding world.
Symbols—such as gestures, signs, objects, signals, and words—help people understand that world. They
provide communication methods to understanding experiences by conveying recognizable meanings that are
shared by societies.
The world is filled with symbols. Sports uniforms, company logos, and traffic signs are symbols. In some
cultures, a gold ring is a symbol of marriage. Some symbols are highly functional; stop signs, for instance,
provide useful instruction. As physical objects, they belong to material culture, but because they function as
symbols, they also convey nonmaterial cultural meanings. Some symbols are valuable only in what they
represent. Trophies, blue ribbons, or gold medals, for example, represent accomplishments. But many objects
have both material and nonmaterial symbolic value.
FIGURE 3.6 Some road signs are universal. But how would you interpret the signage on the right? (Credit: (a)
Andrew Bain/flickr; (b) HonzaSoukup/flickr)
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3.2 • Elements of Culture
Symbols often get noticed when they are out of context. Used unconventionally, they convey strong messages.
A stop sign placed on the door of a college building makes a political statement, as does a camouflage military
jacket worn in an antiwar protest. Together, the semaphore signals for “N” and “D” represent nuclear
disarmament—and form the well-known peace sign (Westcott, 2008). Some college students wear pajamas and
bedroom slippers to class, clothing that was formerly associated only with privacy and bedtime. By wearing the
outfit, students are defying traditional cultural norms.
Some symbols represent only one side of the story and elicit strong emotions, which can lead to social unrest.
Their presence is a reminder of a nation’s worst times and not something to celebrate. Many of these symbols
are targets of vandalism as the destruction of these representations is symbolic. Effigies representing public
figures are burned to demonstrate anger at certain leaders. In 1989, crowds tore down the Berlin Wall, a
decades-old symbol of the division between East and West Germany, communism, and capitalism. In the U.S.
beginning in 2019, statues associated with slavery and the Civil War were removed from state capitols, college
campuses, and public parks. In Germany, any display of Hitler or Nazi memorabilia or to deny the Holocaust is
illegal.
While different cultures have varying systems of symbols, one system is common to all: language. Whatever its
form, people learn social and cultural norms through it.
Language and Symbols
Language is a system that uses symbols with which people communicate and through which culture is
transmitted. Letters (which make up words), pictographs, and hand gestures are all symbols that create a
language used for communication. Sign language, for example, requires an intimate knowledge not only of an
alphabet but also of signs that represent entire words and the meaning indicated by certain facial expressions
or postures. Its grammar differs from the spoken language. As spoken language is different across regions,
nations and cultures, and can even differ by the age of the person, so too does sign language.
All language systems contain the same basic elements that are effective in communicating ideas – object,
subject, action. A written language system consists of symbols that refer to spoken sound. Taken together,
these symbols convey specific meanings. The English language uses a combination of twenty-six letters to
create words. These twenty-six letters make up over 600,000 recognized words (OED Online, 2011). We can
compare the reliance on tone and inflection to Mandarin Chinese. It contains over 8,000 characters, but the
same character may symbolize different concepts depending on the tone used.
English today contains an English and French version for the same concept. For example, in the English
version, one eats, but in French version, one dines. In the English version, we meet someone. In the French
version, we encounter someone. Readers of American English may be surprised by the inclusion of a ‘u’ in
some spellings of words like ‘behaviour’ or ‘flavour.’ Americans have dropped that ‘u’ that writers of British
English include. Billions of people speak English, and there are almost as many pronunciations of it.
Rules for speaking and writing vary even within cultures, most notably by region. Do you eat a grinder, a sub, or
a hero/gyro? Do you refer to a can of carbonated liquid as “soda” or “pop”? Is a household entertainment room
a “family room,” “rec room,” or “den”? When leaving a restaurant, do you ask your server for a “check,” the
“ticket,” or your “bill”? Language is constantly evolving and adding new words as societies create new ideas. In
this age of technology, many cultures have adapted almost instantly to new nouns such as “e-mail” and
“Internet,” and verbs such as “downloading,” “texting,” and “blogging.” These would have considered nonsense
words just the world twenty-five years ago.
Language and Culture
Even while it constantly evolves, language shapes our perception of reality and our behavior. In the 1920s,
linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf advanced this idea which became known as Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis or linguistic relativity. It is based on the idea that people experience their world through their
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language, and therefore understand their world through the cultural meanings embedded in their language.
The hypothesis suggests that language shapes thought and thus behavior (Swoyer, 2003). For example, words
have attached meanings beyond their definition that can influence thought and behavior. In the U.S. where the
number thirteen is associated with bad luck, many high-rise buildings do not have a 13th floor. In Japan,
however, the number four is considered unlucky, since it is pronounced similarly to the Japanese word for
“death.”
Many sociologists believe that language can have a broad and lasting impact on perception. In 2002, Lera
Boroditsky and her colleagues conducted experiments on native German and Spanish speakers in English.
Unlike English, these languages assign genders to nouns. In German, for example, the word for sun, die Sonne,
is feminine, but the word for moon, der Mond, is masculine. The team chose a set of nouns with opposite
genders in German and Spanish and asked participants to provide adjectives to describe them. They found
that German speakers used more masculine adjectives than Spanish speakers when describing a noun that
was grammatically masculine in German but feminine in Spanish. For example, the word for key is masculine
in German and feminine in Spanish. German speakers described keys as hard, heavy, jagged, metal, serrated,
and useful, while Spanish speakers used the adjectives, golden, intricate, little, lovely, shiny, and tiny. The team
concluded that gender perceptions acquired in a person’s native language carry forward to how they see the
world even when they switch to a language without grammatical genders (Boroditsky, Schmidt, and Phillips,
2002).
Some sociologists also believe the structure of language can have consequences on both individual and group
behavior. For example, a series of studies have found that Finland has a significantly higher rate of workplace
accidents than Sweden despite the fact that the languages have similar workplace regulations (Salminen &
Johansson, 2000). John A. Lucy explained this discrepancy through differences in the structure of these
languages. Swedish places a greater emphasis on the timing of movement in three-dimensional space.
Consequently, Lucy argued, the Swedish factories are physically arranged in a manner that supports the
smooth running of the product process. Finnish factors experience frequent disruptions, so that workers must
rush and have more accidents (Lucy, 1997).
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has been interpreted to suggest that if a word does not exist in a language then
users of that language cannot have the experience. Studies have shown, for instance, that unless people have
access to the word “ambivalent,” they don’t recognize having conflicting positive and negative feelings about
an issue as ‘ambivalence.’ However, the hypothesis should not suggest that people do not have conflicting
feelings but rather that they interpret the feelings differently.
In addition to using spoken language, people communicate without words. Nonverbal communication is
symbolic, and, as in the case of language, is learned through one’s culture. Some gestures are nearly universal;
some are not. Smiles often indicate positive reinforcement in the U.S., whereas in some cultures it is rude as
you do not know the person. A thumbs-up in Russia and Australia is an offensive curse (Passero, 2002). Other
gestures vary in meaning depending on the situation and the person. A wave of the hand can mean many
things, depending on how it’s done and for whom. It may mean “hello,” “goodbye,” “no thank you,” or “I’m
royalty.” Winks convey a variety of messages, including “We have a secret,” “I’m only kidding,” or “I’m attracted
to you.” From a distance, a person may “read” the emotional situation of people just by watching their body
language and facial expressions. However, many cultures communicate with lots of physicality, which people
outside that culture may interpret as an argument. So, for example, you might believe two people are arguing
when, in fact, they are simply having a regular conversation.
SOCIAL POLICY AND DEBATE
Is the U.S. Bilingual?
When she was six, Lucy and her family immigrated to the United States and attended a school that allowed for the
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3.2 • Elements of Culture
use of both English and Spanish. Lucy’s teacher and many staff were bilingual (fluent in English and Spanish), and
the district offered books in both languages. While she was being driven to learn English, the dual-language option
helped to ensure that she did not become lost and get behind in her learning of all subjects. Having math, science,
and computing taught in both languages helped her understand those concepts and skills. Within two years of
enrolling in the school, Lucy was getting nearly all of her instruction in English, and rarely used the Spanish-language
books or resources. While she still had trouble with some intricacies of English, her math progress was above grade
level and she did well in other subjects as well.
Some people might believe that Lucy would have learned faster had she been instructed only in English. But
research indicates that is not the case. Johns Hopkins University, researchers conducted a series of studies on the
effects of bilingual education across multiple subjects (Slavin et al. 2008). They found that students taught in both
their native tongue and English make better progress than those taught only in English.
Legally, the U.S. has no official language. But many believe English to be the rightful language of the U.S., and over
thirty states have passed laws specifying English as their official tongue. Proponents of English-only laws suggest
that a national ruling will save money on translation, printing, and human resource costs, including funding for
bilingual teachers. They argue that setting English as the official language will encourage non-English speakers to
learn English faster and adapt to the culture of the U.S. more easily (Mount 2010). Groups such as the American Civil
Liberties Union (ACLU) oppose making English the official language and claim that it violates the rights of nonEnglish speakers. English-only laws, they believe, deny the reality of our nation’s diversity and unfairly target nonEnglish speakers. They point to the fact that much of the debate on this topic has risen since 1970, a period during
which the U.S. has experienced new waves of immigration from Asia and Mexico.
Today, a lot of product information gets written in multiple languages. Enter a store like Home Depot and you’ll find
signs in both English and Spanish. Buy a children’s product and the safety warnings could be presented in multiple
languages. While marketers are financially motivated to reach the largest number of consumers possible, this trend
also may help people become accustomed to a culture of bilingualism.
Studies show that most US immigrants eventually abandon their native tongues and become fluent in English.
Bilingual education helps with that transition. Today, Lucy is an ambitious and high-achieving college student. Fluent
in both English and Spanish, Lucy is studying law enforcement—a field that seeks bilingual employees. The same
bilingualism that contributed to her success in grade school will help her thrive professionally as a law officer
serving her community.
FIGURE 3.7 Many signs—on streets and in stores—include both English and Spanish. What effect does this have on
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members of society? What effect does it have on our culture? (Credit: istolethetv/flickr)
3.3 High, Low, Pop, Sub, Counter-culture and Cultural Change
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
• Discuss the roles of both high culture and pop culture within society
• Differentiate between subculture and counterculture
• Explain the role of innovation, invention, and discovery in culture
• Describe the role of cultural lag and globalization in cultural change
It may seem obvious that there are a multitude of cultural differences between societies in the world. After all,
we can easily see that people vary from one society to the next. It’s natural to think that a young woman from a
village in rural Kenya in Eastern Africa would have a different view of the world from a young woman from
urban Mumbai, India—one of the most populated cities in the world.
Additionally, each culture has its own internal variations. Sometimes the differences between cultures are not
as large as the differences within cultures. Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu wrote about cultural capital, which
consists of material goods, non-material attitudes, and knowledge that are specific to a certain economic class.
Bourdieu grouped cultural capital into three categories: embodied (a regional dialect), objectified
(possessions), and institutionalized (academic credentials). In the U.S., some group culture into three
categories as well: high, low, and pop (for popular).
High, Low, and Popular Culture
Can you identify the Chief Financial Officer of three major corporations? How about the name of the server at
three local hangouts? How many books do you own? How many social media sites do you visit? Is your family
listed on the Social Register©? Have you ever heard of the Social Register©? In each pair, one type of knowledge
is considered high culture and the other low culture.
This could be considered stereotyping by economic class rather than by race or gender, but sociologists use the
term high culture to describe the pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes that exist in the highest or elite
class segments of a society. People often associate high culture with intellectualism, political power, and
prestige. In America, high culture also tends to be associated with wealth. Events considered high culture can
be expensive, formal, and exclusive – attending a ballet, seeing a play, listening to a live symphony
performance, or attending a prestigious university. Similarly, low culture is associated with the pattern of
cultural experiences and attitudes that exist in the lowest class segments of a society.
The term popular culture refers to the pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes that exist in mainstream
society. Popular culture events might include a parade, a baseball game, or the season finale of a television
show. Music, anime, and cosplay are pieces of popular culture. Popular culture is accessible by most and is
expressed and spread via commercial and social media outlets such as radio, television, movies, the music
industry, publishers, and corporate-run websites. You can share a discussion of favorite football teams with a
new coworker or comment on a reality show when making small talk in line at the grocery store. But if you
tried to launch into a deep discussion on the classical Greek play Antigone, few members of U.S. society today
would be familiar with it. Although high culture may be considered by some as superior to popular culture, the
lines between high culture and popular culture vary over time and place. Shakespearean plays, considered to
be popular culture when they were written, are now part of our society’s high culture. Five hundred years from
now, will our descendants consider Dancing with the Stars as fine performance art?
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3.3 • High, Low, Pop, Sub, Counter-culture and Cultural Change
Subculture and Counterculture
FIGURE 3.8 Cosplayers are a distinct subculture (a smaller cultural group within the larger culture) in the United
States. And within the larger subculture are subgroups, such as this one emulating D.C. Comics characters. (Credit:
Pat Loika)
A subculture is just what it sounds like—a smaller cultural group within a larger culture. People of a subculture
are part of the larger culture but also share a specific identity within a smaller group.*
Thousands of subcultures exist within the U.S. Ethnic and racial groups share the language, food, and customs
of their heritage. Other subcultures are formed through shared experiences. Biker culture revolves around an
interest in motorcycles. Some subcultures are formed by people who possess traits or preferences that differ
from the majority of a society’s population. The body modification community embraces aesthetic additions to
the human body, such as tattoos, piercings, and certain forms of plastic surgery. But even as members of a
subculture band together, they still identify with and participate in the larger society.
Sociologists distinguish subcultures from countercultures, which reject some of the larger culture’s norms
and values. In contrast to subcultures, which operate relatively smoothly within the larger society,
countercultures might actively defy larger society by developing their own set of rules and norms to live by,
sometimes even creating communities that operate outside of greater society. Counterculture members are
‘against’ the dominant ruling culture and want to install their own values. Sub-culture members may want to
change some things but established procedures are followed.
Cults, a word derived from culture, are also considered counterculture groups. The group “Yearning for Zion”
(YFZ) in Eldorado, Texas, existed outside the mainstream and the limelight, until its leader was accused of
statutory rape and underage marriage. The sect’s formal norms clashed too severely to be tolerated by US law,
and in 2008, authorities raided the compound and removed more than two hundred women and children from
the property. Many cults claim to be spiritual, often establishing themselves as a religion. When each of the
three Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Islam, and Judaism) in the world began, they were treated as cults and
suffered much oppression because of it.
Cultural Change
Cultures continually change because new items are added to material culture every day and in turn, meanings
are assigned to them (non-material), which affects other cultural components. For example, a new technology,
such as railroads or smartphones, might introduce new ways of traveling or communicating. New ideas, such
as flash mobs or crowdfunding, enter a culture . Sociologists identify two broad categories of change as
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innovation (meaning new) and diffusion (to spread out). Material cultural change happens when new items
are discovered or invented or enter a culture as a result of globalization.
Innovation: Discovery and Invention
An innovation refers to an object or concept’s initial appearance in society—it is innovative because it is new.
Innovations are discovered or invented. Discoveries make known previously unknown but existing aspects of
reality. In 1610, when Galileo looked through his telescope and discovered Saturn, the planet was already
there, but until then, no one had known about it. When Christopher Columbus encountered Hispaniola, the
island was, of course, already well known to its inhabitants. However, his discovery was new knowledge for
Europeans, and it opened the way to changes in European culture, as well as to the cultures of the discovered
lands. For example, new foods such as potatoes and tomatoes transformed the European diet, and horses
brought from Europe changed hunting practices of Great Plains Native Americans.
Inventions result when something new is formed from existing objects or concepts—when things are put
together in an entirely new manner. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, electric appliances were invented at an
astonishing pace. Cars, airplanes, vacuum cleaners, lamps, radios, telephones, and televisions were all new
inventions. Inventions may shape a culture by replacing older ways of carrying out tasks, being integrated into
current practices, or creating new activities. Their adoption reflects (and may shape) cultural values, and their
use may introduce new norms and practices.
Consider the rise of mobile phones. As more and more people began carrying these devices, phone
conversations no longer were restricted to homes, offices, and phone booths. People on trains, in restaurants,
and in other public places became annoyed by listening to one-sided conversations. New norms and behaviors
were needed for cell phone use. Some people pushed for the idea that those who are out in the world should
pay attention to their companions and surroundings. Fortunately, technology found a workaround: texting,
which enables quiet communication surpassed phone conversations as the primary way to communicate
anywhere, everywhere.
When the pace of innovation increases, it can lead to generation gaps. Technological gadgets that catch on
quickly with one generation are sometimes dismissed by an older generation that is skeptical or struggles to
adopt them. The older generation might tune into a musician performing on public television while the
younger generation prefers a livestream. A culture’s objects and ideas can cause not just generational but
cultural gaps. Material culture tends to diffuse more quickly than nonmaterial culture; technology can spread
through society in a matter of months, but it can take generations for the ideas and beliefs of society to change
including methods for researching or learning information (e.g., library versus Internet search).
FIGURE 3.9 Technology Adoption Lifecycle — Sociologist Everett Rogers (1962) developed a model of the diffusion
of innovations. As consumers gradually adopt a new innovation, the item grows toward 100 percent usage, or
complete saturation within a society. This graph is frequently used in business, sales, technology, and cultural
innovations. It can be used to describe how quickly different groups adopt (or begin using) a new technology or a
new slang word, but note it is just a framework: not every innovation follows this exact pattern, but it provides a
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3.3 • High, Low, Pop, Sub, Counter-culture and Cultural Change
good foundation for discussion and prediction. (Graph attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY
4.0 license)
Coined by sociologist William F. Ogburn (1957), the term culture lag refers to the time that passes between the
introduction of a new item of material culture and its social acceptance. Culture lag can also cause tangible
problems. The infrastructure of the U.S., built a hundred years ago or more, is having trouble supporting
today’s more heavily populated and fast-paced life. Yet there is a lag in conceptualizing solutions to
infrastructure problems. Municipalities struggle with traffic control, increased air pollution, and limited
parking, which are all symptoms of culture lag. Although people are becoming aware of the consequences,
overuse, or lack of resources, addressing these needs takes time.
Diffusion and Globalization
Another way material and nonmaterial culture crosses borders is through diffusion. Like a gas in a laboratory
experiment, the item or idea spreads throughout. Diffusion relates to the process of the integration of cultures
into the mainstream while globalization refers to the promotion and increase of interactions between
different regions and populations around the globe resulting in the integration of markets and
interdependence of nations fostered through trade.
Ideas concepts, or artifacts are often diffused, or spread, to individuals and groups, resulting in new social
practices. People might develop a new appreciation of Thai noodles or Italian gelato (ice cream). Access to
television and the Internet has brought the lifestyles and values portrayed in U.S. sitcoms into homes around
the globe and vice versa. Twitter feeds from public demonstrations in one nation have encouraged political
protesters in other countries. When this kind of diffusion occurs, ideas from one culture are introduced into
another, often before the associated material objects. The graph above displays when diffusion typically
occurs, essentially driving an innovation to spread beyond its earliest adopters to the wider majority of people.
FIGURE 3.10 Officially patented in 1893 as the “clasp locker” (left), the zipper did not diffuse through society for
many decades. Today, it is immediately recognizable around the world. (Credit: (a) US Patent Office/Wikimedia
Commons; (b) Rabensteiner/Wikimedia Commons).
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3.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Culture
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section you should be able to:
• Discuss the major theoretical approaches to cultural interpretation
Music, fashion, technology, and values—all are products of culture. But what do they mean? How do
sociologists perceive and interpret culture based on these material and nonmaterial items? Let’s finish our
analysis of culture by reviewing them in the context of three theoretical perspectives: functionalism, conflict
theory, and symbolic interactionism.
Functionalists view society as a system in which all parts work—or function—together to create society as a
whole. They often use the human body as an analogy. Looking at life in this way, societies need culture to exist.
Cultural norms function to support the fluid operation of society, and cultural values guide people in making
choices. Just as members of a society work together to fulfill a society’s needs, culture exists to meet its
members’ social and personal needs.
Functionalists also study culture in terms of values. For example, education is highly valued in the U.S. The
culture of education—including material culture such as classrooms, textbooks, libraries, educational
technology, dormitories and non-material culture such as specific teaching approaches—demonstrates how
much emphasis is placed on the value of educating a society’s members. In contrast, if education consisted of
only providing guidelines and some study material without the other elements, that would demonstrate that
the culture places a lower value on education.
FIGURE 3.11 This statue of Superman stands in the center of Metropolis, Illinois. His pedestal reads
“Truth—Justice—The American Way.” How would a functionalist interpret this statue? What does it reveal about the
values of American culture? (Credit: David Wilson/flickr)
Functionalists view the different categories of culture as serving many functions. Having membership in a
culture, a subculture, or a counterculture brings camaraderie and social cohesion and benefits the larger
society by providing places for people who share similar ideas.
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3.4 • Theoretical Perspectives on Culture
Conflict theorists, however, view social structure as inherently unequal, based on power differentials related to
issues like class, gender, race, and age. For a conflict theorist, established educational methods are seen as
reinforcing the dominant societal culture and issues of privilege. The historical experiences of certain groups—
those based upon race, sex, or class, for instance, or those that portray a negative narrative about the dominant
culture—are excluded from history books. For a long time, U.S. History education omitted the assaults on
Native American people and society that were part of the colonization of the land that became the United
States. A more recent example is the recognition of historical events like race riots and racially based
massacres like the Tulsa Massacre, which was widely reported when it occurred in 1921 but was omitted from
many national historical accounts of that period of time. When an episode of HBO’s Watchmen showcased the
event in stunning and horrific detail, many people expressed surprise that it had occurred and it hadn’t been
taught or discussed (Ware 2019).
Historical omission is not restricted to the U.S. North Korean students learn of their benevolent leader without
information about his mistreatment of large portions of the population. According to defectors and North
Korea experts, while famines and dire economic conditions are obvious, state media and educational agencies
work to ensure that North Koreans do not understand how different their country is from others (Jacobs 2019).
Inequities exist within a culture’s value system and become embedded in laws, policies, and procedures. This
inclusion leads to the oppression of the powerless by the powerful. A society’s cultural norms benefit some
people but hurt others. Women were not allowed to vote in the U.S. until 1920, making it hard for them to get
laws passed that protected their rights in the home and in the workplace. Same-sex couples were denied the
right to marry in the U.S. until 2015. Elsewhere around the world, same-sex marriage is only legal in 31 of the
planet’s 195 countries.
At the core of conflict theory is the effect of economic production and materialism. Dependence on technology
in rich nations versus a lack of technology and education in poor nations. Conflict theorists believe that a
society’s system of material production has an effect on the rest of culture. People who have less power also
have fewer opportunities to adapt to cultural change. This view contrasts with the perspective of
functionalism. Where functionalists would see the purpose of culture—traditions, folkways, values—as helping
individuals navigate through life and societies run smoothly, conflict theorists examine socio-cultural
struggles, including the power and privilege created for some by using and reinforcing a dominate culture that
sustains their position in society
Symbolic interactionism is the sociological perspective that is most concerned with the face-to-face
interactions and cultural meanings between members of society. It is considered a micro-level analysis.
Instead of looking how access is different between the rich and poor, interactionists see culture as being
created and maintained by the ways people interact and in how individuals interpret each other’s actions. In
this perspective, people perpetuate cultural ways. Proponents of this theory conceptualize human interaction
as a continuous process of deriving meaning from both objects in the environment and the actions of others.
Every object and action has a symbolic meaning, and language serves as a means for people to represent and
communicate interpretations of these meanings to others. Symbolic interactionists perceive culture as highly
dynamic and fluid, as it is dependent on how meaning is interpreted and how individuals interact when
conveying these meanings. Interactionists research changes in language. They study additions and deletions
of words, the changing meaning of words, and the transmission of words in an original language into different
ones.
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FIGURE 3.12 Sometimes external observers may believe that people from a culture dress a certain way based on
images from a parade or special event. In reality, these two people may wear business suits or jeans and T-shirts
when they are not participating in a flower parade. While people may not always outwardly express their cultural
identity or use items related to their culture, special events often bring out those expressions. (Credit: John
Shedrick)
We began this chapter by asking, “What is culture?” Culture is comprised of values, beliefs, norms, language,
practices, and artifacts of a society. Because culture is learned, it includes how people think and express
themselves. While we may like to consider ourselves individuals, we must acknowledge the impact of culture
on us and our way of life. We inherit language that shapes our perceptions and patterned behavior, including
those of family, friends, faith, and politics.
To an extent, culture is a social comfort. After all, sharing a similar culture with others is precisely what
defines societies. Nations would not exist if people did not coexist culturally. There could be no societies if
people did not share heritage and language, and civilization would cease to function if people did not agree on
similar values and systems of social control.
Culture is preserved through transmission from one generation to the next, but it also evolves through
processes of innovation, discovery, and cultural diffusion. As such, cultures are social constructions. The
society approves or disapproves of items or ideas, which are therefore included or not in the culture. We may
be restricted by the confines of our own culture, but as humans we have the ability to question values and
make conscious decisions. No better evidence of this freedom exists than the amount of cultural diversity
around the world. The more we study another culture, the better we become at understanding our own.
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3 • Key Terms
87
Key Terms
alarm reaction first stage of the general adaptation syndrome; characterized as the body’s immediate
physiological reaction to a threatening situation or some other emergency; analogous to the fight-or-flight
response
beliefs
tenets or convictions that people hold to be true
cortisol stress hormone released by the adrenal glands when encountering a stressor; helps to provide a
boost of energy, thereby preparing the individual to take action
countercultures
groups that reject and oppose society’s widely accepted cultural patterns
culture
shared beliefs, values, and practices
culture lag
the gap of time between the introduction of material culture and nonmaterial culture’s
acceptance of it
diffusion
the spread of material and nonmaterial culture from one culture to another
discoveries
things and ideas found from what already exists
distress bad form of stress; usually high in intensity; often leads to exhaustion, fatigue, feeling burned out;
associated with erosions in performance and health
eustress good form of stress; low to moderate in intensity; associated with positive feelings, as well as
optimal health and performance
fight-or-flight response set of physiological reactions (increases in blood pressure, heart rate, respiration
rate, and sweat) that occur when an individual encounters a perceived threat; these reactions are
produced by activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system
folkways
direct, appropriate behavior in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture
formal norms
established, written rules
general adaptation syndrome Hans Selye’s three-stage model of the body’s physiological reactions to stress
and the process of stress adaptation: alarm reaction, stage of resistance, and stage of exhaustion
globalization
the integration of international trade and finance markets
health psychology subfield of psychology devoted to studying psychological influences on health, illness,
and how people respond when they become ill
high culture
the cultural patterns of a society’s elite
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis set of structures found in both the limbic system
(hypothalamus) and the endocrine system (pituitary gland and adrenal glands) that regulate many of the
body’s physiological reactions to stress through the release of hormones
ideal culture
the standards a society would like to embrace and live up to
informal norms
casual behaviors that are generally and widely conformed to
innovations
new objects or ideas introduced to culture for the first time
inventions
a combination of pieces of existing reality into new forms
language
a symbolic system of communication
mores
the moral views and principles of a group
norms
the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured
popular culture
mainstream, widespread patterns among a society’s population
primary appraisal judgment about the degree of potential harm or threat to well-being that a stressor might
entail
real culture
the way society really is based on what actually occurs and exists
sanctions
a way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviors
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
the way that people understand the world based on their form of language
secondary appraisal judgment of options available to cope with a stressor and their potential effectiveness
social control
a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms
society
people who live in a definable community and who share a culture
stage of exhaustion third stage of the general adaptation syndrome; the body’s ability to resist stress
becomes depleted; illness, disease, and even death may occur
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3 • Section Summary
stage of resistance second stage of the general adaptation syndrome; the body adapts to a stressor for a
period of time
stress process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that one appraises as overwhelming
or threatening to one’s well-being
stressors environmental events that may be judged as threatening or demanding; stimuli that initiate the
stress process
subcultures
groups that share a specific identification, apart from a society’s majority, even as the
members exist within a larger society
symbols
gestures or objects that have meanings associated with them that are recognized by people who
share a culture
values
a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society
Section Summary
3.1 What Is Culture?
Though “society” and “culture” are often used interchangeably, they have different meanings. A society is a
group of people sharing a community and culture. The term culture generally describes the shared values,
beliefs, norms, language, practices, and artifacts of these people, and includes material and nonmaterial
elements. Our experience of cultural difference is influenced by our ethnocentrism (judging others using your
cultural standards) and Xenocentrism (belief that another culture is superior). Sociologists practice cultural
relativism (assessing others using their own cultural standards) although it is quite difficult.
3.2 Elements of Culture
A culture consists of many elements, such as the values and beliefs of its society. Culture is also governed by
norms, including laws, mores (norms that embody moral views), and folkways (traditions without any moral
underpinnings). The symbols and language of a society are key to developing and conveying culture. In a
nutshell, the four main components are values, beliefs, norms, language, practices, and artifacts.
3.3 High, Low, Pop, Sub, Counter-culture and Cultural Change
Sociologists recognize that there is a dominant culture or cultural practice that is dominant often
characterized as the norm in a society as well as different types of cultures within societies. Societies also
consist of many subcultures (a smaller cultural group within a larger culture). Some arese as a result of a
shared identity or interest. Countercultures reject the dominant culture’s values and create their own cultural
rules and norms. Cultural change can happen through invention or discovery. Cultures evolve via new ideas
and new ways of thinking. In many modern cultures, the cornerstone of innovation is technology, the rapid
growth of which can lead to cultural lag (time from creation or introduction to social acceptance). Technology
is also responsible for the spread of both material and nonmaterial culture that contributes to globalization
(the increase of movement and exchange of goods and ideas all over the planet).
3.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Culture
There are three major theoretical approaches toward the interpretation of culture. A functionalist perspective
acknowledges that the many parts of culture work together as a system to fulfill society’s needs. Functionalists
view culture as a reflection of society’s values. Conflict theorists see culture as inherently unequal, reinforcing
inequalities in gender, class, race, and age. Symbolic interactionists are primarily interested in culture as
experienced in the daily interactions, interpretations, and exchanges between individuals and the symbols
that comprise a culture. Various cultural and sociological occurrences can be explained by these theories. Each
theory provides a different perspective or lens to help understand culture in societies.
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3 • Section Quiz
89
Section Quiz
3.1 What Is Culture?
1. The terms _______ and ______ are often used interchangeably, but have nuances that differentiate them.
a. imperialism and relativism
b. culture and society
c. society and ethnocentrism
d. ethnocentrism and Xenocentrism
2. The American flag is a material object that denotes the U.S. However, many associate ideas with the flag,
like bravery and freedom. In this example, what are bravery and freedom?
a. Symbols
b. Language
c. Material culture
d. Nonmaterial culture
3. The belief that one’s culture is inferior to another culture is called:
a. ethnocentrism
b. nationalism
c. xenocentrism
d. imperialism
4. The irrational fear or hatred of another culture is called:
a. ethnocentrism
b. xenophobia
c. xenophile
d. ethnophobia
5. Rodney and Elise are U.S. students studying abroad in Italy. When they are introduced to their host families,
the families kiss them on both cheeks. When Rodney’s host brother introduces himself and kisses Rodney
on both cheeks, Rodney pulls back in surprise. Where he is from, unless they are romantically involved,
men do not kiss one another. This is an example of:
a. culture shock
b. imperialism
c. ethnocentrism
d. xenocentrism
6. Most cultures have been found to identify laughter as a sign of humor, joy, or pleasure. Laughter is an
examples of:
a. relativism
b. ethnocentrism
c. xenocentrism
d. universalism
90
3 • Section Quiz
3.2 Elements of Culture
7. A nation’s flag is:
a. A symbol
b. A value
c. A culture
d. A folkway
8. The existence of social norms, both formal and informal, is one of the main things that inform
___________, otherwise known as encouraging social conformity.
a. values
b. sanctions
c. social control
d. mores
9. The biggest difference between mores and folkways is that
a. mores are linked to morality, whereas folkways are tied to commonplace behaviors
b. mores are absolute, whereas folkways are temporary
c. mores refer to material culture, whereas folkways refer to nonmaterial culture
d. mores refer to nonmaterial culture, whereas folkways refer to material culture
10. The notion that people cannot feel or experience something that they do not have a word for can be
explained by:
a. linguistics
b. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
c. Ethnographic imagery
d. bilingualism
11. Cultural sanctions can also be viewed as ways that society:
a. Establishes leaders
b. Determines language
c. Regulates behavior
d. Determines laws
3.3 High, Low, Pop, Sub, Counter-culture and Cultural Change
12. An example of high culture is _________, whereas an example of popular culture would be ____________.
a. Dostoevsky style in film; “American Idol” winners
b. medical marijuana; film noir
c. country music; pop music
d. political theory; sociological theory
13. The Ku Klux Klan is an example of what part of culture?
a. Counterculture
b. Subculture
c. Multiculturalism
d. pop culture
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3 • Section Quiz
91
14. Modern-day hipsters are an example of:
a. ethnocentricity
b. counterculture
c. subculture
d. high culture
15. Your eighty-three-year-old grandmother has been using a computer for some time now. As a way to keep
in touch, you frequently send emails of a few lines to let her know about your day. She calls after every
email to respond point by point, but she has never emailed a response back. This can be viewed as an
example of:
a. cultural lag
b. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
c. Ethnographic imagery
d. bilingualism
16. Some jobs today advertise in multinational markets and permit telecommuting in lieu of working from a
primary location. This broadening of the job market and the way that jobs are performed can be attributed
to:
a. cultural lag
b. diffusion
c. discovery
d. globalization
17. The major difference between invention and discovery is:
a. Invention is based on technology, whereas discovery is usually based on culture
b. Discovery involves finding items that already exists, but invention puts things together in a new way
c. Invention refers to material culture, whereas discovery can be material or theoretic, like laws of
physics
d. Invention is typically used to refer to prehistoric objects, whereas discovery refers to local culture
18. McDonald’s restaurants are found in almost every country around the world. What is this an example of?
a. globalization
b. diffusion
c. culture lag
d. xenocentrism
3.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Culture
19. A sociologist conducts research into the ways that Hispanic American students are historically
underprivileged in the U.S. education system. What theoretical approach is the sociologist Using?
a. Symbolic interactionism
b. Functionalism
c. Conflict theory
d. Ethnocentrism
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3 • Short Answer
20. Members of a counterculture movement believed that the economic disparity between the highest and the
mid to lower economic classes is growing at an exponentially alarming rate. A sociologist who studies that
movement by examining the interactions between its members would most likely use what theoretical
approach?
a. Symbolic interactionism
b. Functionalism
c. Conflict theory
d. Ethnocentrism
21. What theoretical perspective views society as having a system of interdependent inherently connected
parts?
a. Sociobiology
b. Functionalism
c. Conflict theory
d. Ethnocentrism
22. The “American Dream”—the notion that anybody can be successful and rich if they work hard enough—is
most commonly associated with which sociological theory?
a. Sociobiology
b. Functionalism
c. Conflict theory
d. Ethnocentrism
Short Answer
3.1 What Is Culture?
1. Examine the difference between material and nonmaterial culture in your world. Identify ten objects that
are part of your regular cultural experience. For each, then identify what aspects of nonmaterial culture
(values, beliefs, norms, language, and practices) that these objects represent. What has this exercise
revealed to you about your culture?
2. Do you believe that feelings of ethnocentricity or xenocentric attitudes and practices are prevalent in U.S.
culture? Why do you believe this? What issues or events might influence your ideas about these concepts?
3.2 Elements of Culture
3. What do you think of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? Do you agree or disagree with it? Cite examples or
research to support your point of view.
4. How would the elimination of a social “norm” influence your culture? Describe the positive and negative
effects.
3.3 High, Low, Pop, Sub, Counter-culture and Cultural Change
5. Identify several examples of popular culture and describe how they form societal culture. How prevalent is
the effect of these examples in your everyday life?
6. Consider some of the specific issues or concerns of your generation. Are any ideas or concepts
countercultural? What subcultures have emerged from your generation? How have the issues of your
generation expressed themselves culturally? How has your generation made its mark on society’s collective
culture?
7. What are some examples of cultural lag that are present in your life? What influence does technology have
on culture? Explain.
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3 • Further Research
93
3.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Culture
8. Consider a current social trend that you have witnessed, perhaps situated around family, education,
transportation, or finances. For example, many veterans of the Armed Forces, after completing tours of
duty in the Middle East, are returning to college rather than entering jobs as previous generations did.
Choose a sociological approach—functionalism, conflict theory, or symbolic interactionism—to describe,
explain, and analyze the social issue you choose. Afterward, determine why you chose the approach you
did. Does it suit your own way of thinking? Or does it offer the most relevant method of illuminating the
social issue?
Further Research
3.1 What Is Culture?
Ethnocentrism is a problem in many arenas. In the workplace, it can be hurtful and detrimental to an entire
organization and especially to those who face mistreatment or feel unwelcome. People who exhibit
ethnocentrism in the workplace are not only putting their careers at risk, but missing opportunities to
flourish and advance with colleagues and customers of different backgrounds. In other words, curbing
ethnocentrism is an important personal and societal goal, and it’s important for careers. This guide from an
executive leadership academy (http://openstax.org/l/eurac1) discusses ways that multicultural teams can
create more success if the people and company undertake the correct practices.
3.2 Elements of Culture
The science-fiction novel, Babel-17, by Samuel R. Delaney was based upon the principles of the Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis. Read an excerpt from Babel-17 here (http://openstax.org/l/Babel-17) .
3.3 High, Low, Pop, Sub, Counter-culture and Cultural Change
Many people believe that the time of the counterculture is over. Like many aspects of culture, it could come
back at any time. In this interview (https://openstax.org/l/counterculture) , Princeton professor German
Labrador and director of exhibitions at the Centre de Cultura Contemporània de Barcelona discuss the past,
present, and potential future of counterculture.
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