Chapter盤豊熟饗
organぱation DeVe1opment
and Sehse-Makm9
Approaches
Learning objectives
Bytheendofthischapteryoushou-dbeab-eto:
圃翻圏欄間
Appreciatemoreclearlytheorganizati。naIChangeaPproachesunderpinning
thecoachandinterpreterimagesofmana9ingchange.
耀霞覇灘藁露顕園
Understandtheorganization Development(OD)approachtochange.
璽璽璽圃
Beawareofextensionsofthe OD approachsuchasAppreciativelnquiry,
Positive organizati。naIScholarship,and Dialogic OD.
E圏圏圏麗
Understandthesense‐makingapproachtochange.
“凶hen『he wor/dchonges
oroundyouo打dwhen/rchonges
ogo′“sryou--w力orusedrobeoそo′/w′nd
′snowoheodw′nd-youhovero/eon′“『o
rhofond方gu「eourwhottodobecouse
Comp/O′“′“9′snTostrotegyぞ
282
CI1aPter9
0′耳の7′zα”○〃上)g1’eわ野′77gmの7dSe′7se‐み名α膚′7g4口Proqc力郎
鰹霊園璽LA-ternative APProachesto Managin9 Change
ofthes広imagesofmanagingchange,the mrezq比grand′mm/だrimageshavetheir云oun-
dationsinthe負eldoforganizationtheory;theother危urimages一αかぎαの;のαcた,′?”1ノZgdrの;
and!′?彫塑だす好一havestrongerあundationsintheorganizationalchangefield.Thischapter
andchapter
lodelvefurtherintothe あundationsofthe危urimagesthatarerootedin
theorganizationalchange五eldandexploretheirimplicationsあrhowto manageorganl-
zationalchange,Theyare
alsotheFourimagesthat,in various ways,assumethatthe
change managerhasanimportantinfluenceonthe waychangeoccursinorganizations.
lncontrast,thefirsttwoimages,mだ如たerand′7zザ粥だ′;haveincommonanassumption
thatchange managersre解かe〆口的er豹α〃方窺わzechange.Thereあre,thischapterandchap-
terloexplorethe危urimagesthatassumethatchange managershaveanactiverolein
theinitiation,support,andoutcomesoforganizationalchange,Thischapterconsidersthe
化)undationalapproachesassociatedwiththemαc方andZ′”e′Prezerimages;chapterlocon‐
sidersthe化)undationalapproachesassociatedwiththeαZreczorand′7α覇gα『orlmages,
Underpinnedbythe のqc力image,the organization Development(OD)approachis
one whereitsadherentspresenttheirdevelopmentalprescriptions貴)rachievingchange
asbeingbased,atleasttraditionally,uponacoresetofvalues,onesthatemphasizethat
changeshouldbene賃tnotjustorganizationsbutthepeople whostaぜthem.
oD hasP1ayedacentralroleintheorgallizationalchange賃eld食)roverhalfacentury.IQ
the立2012reviewofoD,BurnesandCooke(p,1396)arguethatit”hasbeen,andarguably,
st皿is,the majorapproachtoorgamZationalchangeacrossthe Western world,andincrea浄
mglyglobally.”H[owever,asthischapterandchapterlo追ustrate,dif発rentilnagesofchange
managementareassociated withd獅erentideasaboutwhatsortofapproaches(andtech-
n
iques)shouldbeusedtotrytobringaboutchangewithinorganizations,ltisnotsurprlsmg,
there]主)re,thatoD’slonghistoryhasbeenaccompa1died,丘omt=ヒnetot立ne,byexpressions
ofconcern astoitscontinu血grelevance,leadingsome writerstoraisethe questionof
whetherODis“incrisis boththeゐ”mα/〆‐4pp/!edB豹αv卿口/Sc′e′lce[40(4),2004]and
oの 銃口のめ〃er{46(4),2014]hiwehadspecialissues危cusedonthequestionofoD’songo‐
i
ngrelevance.A1ong‐standmgcriticism ofoDhasbeenthecla無ithatithasbeensidelined
丘omtheconcernsofthebus血esscommunitybecauseofitspreoccupation withhumanistic
valuesratherthanwithotherissuessuchasbus血essstrate勘′(Hornstei誼,2001;Beer,2014),
Approachestomanagゴロdgchangeotherthan OD haveemerged,Forexample,underp=hじned
bythe粥彫塑形Zerimage,thesense-makjbogapproach maintaiロsthatchangeemergesovert節le
andconsistsofaseriesofinterpretiveactivitiesthathelptocreateinpeoplenew meahdbogs
abouttheirorganizationsandaboutthewaysinw超chtheycanoperatedif発rentlyinthe範mre.
頓/e
commencethis
chapterconsideringthe
approaches underpinnedbythe
coαcA
imageandthen moveontotheZ′#e′prezgrimage.Furtherapproachesto managingchange
areaddressedinchapterlo,
霊園 organization Deve-opment《OD}
lnthissection,weconsidertheunderlyingtenetsoftheoDapproachto managingchange
alongwiththeroleoftheoD practitioner,vvethenreview anumberofchallengesthat
havebeendirectedatoDincludingthecontinuingrelevanceofthevaluesunderlyingthe
ChaPter9
0′耳qmzα“の7上杉veわP“7emの7dSe“s抄膚毎左方7g月βProdcたes
283
OD
approach,theuniversalapplicabilityofthesevalues,andtherelevance
ofOD to
large‐scalechange.
TraditionaーOD Approach:FundamentaIValues
ODasachangeinterventionapproachhasdevelopedovertinleandincorporatedanunl‐
berofdi爺erentperspectives(seetable9.1),eachofwhichisdiscussedinthischaPter,
ln drawingtogetherthecommonthreadsoftraditionalOD,Becな山ard(1969)dePictstheclassic OD apProachasonethathasthe貨)1lowingcharacteristics:
〃お〃/”““edandinvo1vesasystemーaticdiagnosisofthewho1eorganiZationa1system,a
plan長)ritsimprovement,andprovisionofadequateresources.
刀解『op げ功eo増加Zzα”o〃iscommittedtothechangeprocess.
万 の〃?s餌 勿のroy/〃g的e功徒”nだ肥ssoftheorganizationtohelpitachieveits mission.
互声/o刀gzerm,tyPicallyta]bLngtWoorthreeyearstoachievee節ectivechange.
C汚α“gZ“gq助力‘d例 の?〆ゎg角αvZorisa化)cusofthechangee爺ort.
五ゆけ彰〃如“αsd/e″刀殻gisimportantasithelpstoidenti~currentbehaViorsand
modificationsthatareneeded.
Gro雌雄 α“〆 だの刀s食)rmthekey化)cus短rchange.
Though
it
is
commonly presented
as
being
aimed
at
incremental, developmental,first‐orderchange,otherwritersclaimthatwhatunifiestheODfield,atleasttraditionally,isanemphasison acoresetofvalues.Thesevaluesbuildupon humanisticpsychologyandemphasizetheimportanceofdevelopingpeoplein work organizationsandhelpingthemtoachievesatis態ction(Nicholl,1998a).Threevaluesetsareinvolved:
れ〃“α“Zsrzcydz‘esre1atetoopenness,honesty,andintegrity.
DemocrqzZcl概ね鑑srelatetosocialjustice,fteedom ofchoice,andinvolvement.
Deve/opme“ね却〆z‘esrelatetoauthenticity,gro~砿h,andselfrea員zation(Nicholl,1998c),
a
岬
1940s十
199os/2000s
2000s/2010S十 Positiv
TABLE91TheEvolutionofOrganizationDeveloPment
Approach
Perspective
十
TraditionalOD
1mProveorganizationaーPe汗or『nancethr
andgrouPbehaVioちandaPPiyhumanis
/2000s十
Large-scaーechange
Enablewholeorganizationengageme
individualandgrouplevel.
/2010s十
Appreciativeinquiry
Beginbyfocusingonthebestofthec
thanonitsproblems,
/2010S十
PositiveorganizationaI
Emphasizeinterventionsthatimprove
scholarship
十
DialogicOD
1dentifyandacknowledgedifferentor
viewsastotheeXistingreality,anden
onthechangeissues,
Large-
rentorganIZ
unlanCO n.
’’
284
ChaPter9
0′耳ロ′?!zm′o′7Del’e/oの′??g′7rα′7dSe′7se…△”化′′7g自愛Proqc方es
H[unlan develoP窟lent, 態irness,OPenness,choice,andthebalancebetween autonomy
andconstraintare粒ndamentaltothesevalues(Burke,1997),ltissaidthatthesevalues
Wereradica1and”agutsysetofbe=e]Grinre1ationtothetimeinwhichthey weredeVe1‐
oped;thatis,inthel940sandl950swhenorganizationalhierarchywasdominant,elnpha‐
slzmgauthority,rationality,andeぜiciencyratherthanhumanismandindividuality(Burke,
1997).lnthissense,thetraditionalpracticeofOD hasasits あcuspeople andisnot
necessarily meanttosolely化)cusontheinterestsofmanagementortheprofitabilityof
thef立m(Nicholl,1998a).
The OD Practitioller
CentraltothetraditionalOD approachistheroleofthe“OD practitioner”who maybe
eitherinternalorexternaltotheorganization.AtypicalOD practitionerhelpsto“struc‐
tureactivitiestohelptheorganization memberssolvetheirown problemsandlearnto
dothatbette (FrenchandBell,1995,p,4), Wherethisisbaseduponactionresearch,itinvolvesavarietyofstepssuchas(Cummingsand Worley,2019):
1.Pro鋭釧7Zde′?『於c研か7,Someoneintheorganizationbecomesawareofwhatheorshe
thinksisaproblem thatneedstobeaddressed,
2. Co′?sz!/rの!0′7w”ゑα′7Qの〃〆”αm○′?e′:TheclientandthepractitionercometogetherWith
thelatterendeavoringtocreateacollaborativedialogue,
3. 辱Zqgの力er粥gα′〆Prリメe′??〆超g打os〆s.1nterviews,observations,surveys,andanalysisof
perおormance data occurto assistinproblem diagnosis,Each ofthesetechniquesis
recognizedasaninterventioninitselfinthesensethatitinvolvesaninteraction with
people,
4,ReedらQc左.Theconsultantprovidestheclientwithrelevantdata,atthesametimepro-
tectingtheidentityofpeople丘om whominFormation wasobtained.
5.ノoZ′7ZDrob/e“?〆ねg′?o瀞浅 Aspartoftheactionresearchprocess,peopleareinvolvedin
considerationofin食)rmationanddiscuss whatitmeansintermsofrequiredchanges.
6.t
ZOZ′?rqczZの7p/mmZ′?g.Thespecificactionsthatneedtobetakenareidentified.7. C力”′?geqαZo′7s.Theintroduction ofandtransitionto neW techniquesand behaviors
occur,
8. Rz″豹er
αα畝
g‐q抜e“′?g. outcomes
of
change
are
determined
and
further
actions
identified.
lncoachingpeoplethroughsuchchangeprocesses,Cull・mingsand Worley(2019)argue
thatOD practitionersneedavarietyofskills,including:
1.方7rrαPの筈o〃”/s顔偽.Havingawell‐developedsetofvaluesandpersonalintegrityinclud-
ingtheabilitytoretaintheirownhealthinhigh-stressorganizationalsituations,
2.方7Ze′Peiwo′?α/sた”お.Skillsthatareneededto work withgroups,gaintheirtrust,and
”providethem withcounselingandcoaching,
“
3,Ge刀em/m′7s”/如”o′7s毅〃.lncludingknrowledgeaboutinterventiontechniquestoassist
themindiagnosingproblemsanddesign立1gchangeinterventions,
4, 〇rgq′7ZzのZo′? )eve/qP′7?e″ 物eo′γ.Ensuringthatthey haveacurrentunderstandingof
thespecialistfieldofwhichtheyareapart.
ChaPter9
0増の?!zq“○“ )eve加野me摺餌7dSの?se-A‘”膚′7g月″野川qc乃郎
285
Akeyideaunderpinning manyODinterventionsispsychologist KurtLe「win’sthree-
stepmodelofchange;zメリリだe““ghowtheorganizationoperates,叱 伽g勿gtheorganization
inspecificWays,andthen〆三歩だezZ′?gthechangesintotheoperationsoftheorganization.
【whilesomecritics,inparticularCummingsetal.(2016),havearguedthatthethree-step
modelismoreacreationofLewin’s貸)1lowersthanofLewinhimself,morerecentresearch
byBurnes(2020)hasshownthethree-stepconcepttobewell-embeddedinLewin’swork.]
Howthethree‐step modelofchangerelatestotheactionsoftheOD practitionerisset
outintable9.2.
r
Ln
hM
嘘謡
お
TABLE9.2C1assicODChangelnterventionProcesses
Sources:AdaPtedftomFrenchandBell(1995)andCummingsandWorley(2019).
CriticismsofODAstheapplicationofOD asanapproachto managingchangebecamemorewidespread,sodidattentiontoitslimitations.EvenadvocatesoftheOD approachbegantoac超lowl-edgethatthereareproblemsinthefield.Forexample,FrenchandBell(1995)identified
s旗ofthese:
1.ODd所川筋〃sα〃α の〃cepzs. OD mayconsistofsingleor multipleinterventionsover
di版erentperiodsoftime,soestablishingtherelationshipbetween“OD”anditsability
to enhance“organizationale掻ectiveness”is
di菖icult,especially giventhatthelatter
termitselfalsolacksprecisedefinitions.2.Z〃ZemdvαZ霞かPro鋭ems.Thisrelatesto whetherthechangethatoccurred Wascaused
bythec加〃geZ川erye〃ZZo〃orqm〃ge げo功erおαoな.3.Exze摺餌y〆!〆!かproゎをms.Thisisthegeneralizabilityquestion andrelatesto Whether
oD anditstechniquesareappropriatetoallorganizationalsettings.
4.乙αた げ 物eo観 Thereisno comprehensivetheory ofchangeto assistresearchersin
k
llowing whattolookfbrinWhattheystudy.
低
廉
越
P
・m
m
ODpractition
andinitialdia
286
ChaPter9
0増q′7Zz傭わ′7上加増わ野/77g′7rq′7dSe′7sg粥函葱′7g月Pz7rodc方es
5,Froわた′77s・′vなあ′?7eα栂′“′壇 鰭rmdec角の?ges,UsingPre‐changeandthen Post‐changesur-
Veysto measureattitudinalchangesareProblematicaspeople mayVieWthescaledif
角rently whentheyansweritasecondtime,
6,Fro劫の77s・“的′mm7αsαの7ceqIPProqc力esro だseqr所.Theabnitytousethesetechniques
(hypothesistesting,assessingcause-eぼectrelationships,etc.)isquestionedinrelation
to ODbeingaprocessbasedonactionresearch.
French andBell(1995,P,334)adoptedanoptimisticviewofthissituation,argulng
that“thesedo notaPpeartobeinsurmountable problems
atthistime,althoughthey
continuetoP1agueresearche]離orts.“However,otherWriterswerecriticalofsuchoptimism,
pointing
outthatthe
approachislargelydescriPtive
and PrescriPtive,o賃en 魚ilingto
adequatelyconsidertheinherentlimitationsandunderlyingassumptionsofitsowntech-
niques(oswickandGrant,1996).ODhasbeenpresentedwitharangeofothercriticisms
relatingtotheextenttowhichitdealsadequatelywithissuessuchasleadership,strategic
change,power,andrewardsystems(Cummingsand Worley,2019),Three 鏡rthercriti-
cislnsrelatetothecurrentrelevanceofOD’straditionalvalues,theuniversalityofthose
values,andthe
abilityofOD to
eng・ageinlarge‐scale
change, Each oftheseissuesis
addressednext.
CurrentRe-evance of OD’s TraditionaIVa1ues
Despiteitslongevity,orPerhaPsbecauseofit,theissueoftheongomgreleVanceoftheValues
underly血gODcontinuestobeamatterofdebate(see,e,g.,JatロlesonandMarshak,2018),Gojmgback20十years,prom血entODthoughtleaderwarnerBurke(1997,p.7)ar罫ledthat,貴)rmanyexperienced OD practitioners,
‘‘theProコ産)ssionhaslostitsway-thatitsvaluesare
nolongersu伍cientlyhonored, muchlessPracticed,andthattheul=relentingemphasison
Bob
Marshak
is
a
very
experienced
and
highly
re‐
gardedODconsu-tant,ForMarshak,oneofthegreat
ODcha=engesisdealing withwhathedescribesas”coveltProcesses,
”those”powelfulprocessesthatim-
pactorganizationsbutremain
unseen,unspoken,or
unacknowledgedlandwhichiinc1udehiddenagendas,b-indspots,organizationalpolitics,theelephantinthe
room,secrethopesandWishes,tacitassumptions,and
unconsciousdynamics“(Marshak,2006,p.xi.).
下o
reducethe
likelihoodthatcoVertprocesses
thwart
an
attempt
to bring
about
or9anizational
change, Marshak(2006)identifiesfive”keys“to
dealing withcovertprocesses
inthecontextofan
oDintervention:
1. Creofeoのsycho/ogにo/勿 sofeenWron」men[DO
Whateveryoucantocreateaclimateoftrustand
respectwhere
people
feel
safeto
reveal
their
thoughtsandbeliefs.
5.Adcons′srent′y W′th
e叉Pecrof′ons,Stay Within
the
scopeofyour
briefas
explained
to
partici-
pantsattheoutsetunlessyouexplicitlyrenegoti-
ateexpectationswiththem.
3.Assumetho士peop/eorefrコメngrhe′rbestPutthe
focusoninquiryratherthanjudgment.
4.Look′“治em′rroにBeseーf‐awaresothatyourbe‐
haviorastheconsultantisdrivenbythesituation
ofthepeopleyouareworkingWithandnotyour
owncovertnormsandbe-iefs.
2.seekmoVeme“rnore叉posUre.Focusonmovlng
the
situation
forward, not being
judgmental
aboutthe
matterrevealed(i.e,,progress
not
Punishment).
ChaPter9
0′旨立川zq”○“ )g1’e/0脚??emq〃dSe′7sg山毎殻′7g月口Proロメ7es
287
thebottom 血]ehastakenover.”Thissent中lentwasareactiontothegrowingroleofsome
ODpractitionersasadvisersoncorporaterestructurings,mergersandtakeovers,andsoon,despitethelackofevidenceofthevaluescoretooDbeingcentraltosuchchanges.
As
aresult,aview あrmedthat“OD haslostsomeofitspower,itspresence,and
perhapsitsperspective“(Burke,1997,p,7).窺leditorofODルロ臨め肥ratthetime,Dave
Nichoil,agreedwithBurke’sgeneralassessment,pointingtohow manyofthevaluesof
ODareCon丘ontationalto manyofthevaluesheldinourorganizations,leadingto“stark
contrasts” between beingrelevantand value‐neutralorbeingvalue-laden and marginal
(Nicholl,1998c).NichollarguedthatODpractitionersneedtoremindthemselvesofthe
dilemmathey 魚ce,ofassistingbothindividualdevelopmentand organizationaIPer危r-
mance-whichhecharacterizesas“contradictoryelements.” Bydelvingbackinto OD’s
heritage,Nicholl(1999)suggestedthattheyregaintheirhumilityandpresenttoclientsnotcertaintybuteducatedco叩ecture.Finally,heproposedtheneed 危raparadigmshi代
inhowthecorporationisviewedandrebuilt,allowingspacetorecognizethatcorporations
arenotnecessarilyjustinstitutions あrprofitbutsocialinstitutions.
0therOD writershavechallengedmanagersto maketheirorganizationsmLore宣lclusive
(multiplelevelsofinvolvementindecision mak血g),tocreatemutualaccountab道ty(血麺Dgperlt)rmanceremunerationtoadherencetocorevalues,stakeholders,andcorporatesustai誼-
abiHty),toreinfbrceinterdependence(betweenindividuals,organizations,andthe wider
society),toe×pandnotionsoftinleandspace(suchasconsideringtheimpactofdecisions
fbr魚turegenerations),toensurethewiseuseofnaturalresources(suchasconsideration
ofrenewableandnonrenewableresources),andtorede賃nethePurposeoftheorganization
intermsofmultiplestakeholders(includingcustomers,stoc肋olders,community,planet,descendants,organizationalleaders,employees,anddirectors)(Gelinasandlames,1999).
Thevaluingofindusion,opencommunication,coー-
ーaboration,and
empowerment
hascaused
ODto
struggーeinrecentdecadesinthefaceofapercep-
tionthatthesearevaluesfroma“gentler”timeand
lnconsistentwithfiercelycompetitivemarketswhere
onlyrapid
change,driven
bytop‐downedict,can
givehopeofsurviva-.However,BurnesandCooke
(2012)querythischaracterization ofOD,lnstead
theyask,‘ぬreweinatimewhentheissueofvalues
hasneverbeenmoreimportant?“Theysuggestthat
manycountriesarestrugglingwiththeimpactofor‐
ganizationsexhibitingunethical,andfinancia1fyor
environmenta-ly
unsustainable,practices.lfthis
is
so,BurnesandCooke(2012,p.1417)argue,OD“with
its
humanist,democraticand ethicalvalues,wide
rangeofpanicipativetoolsandtechniques,andex-
perienceinpromotingbehaviorchanges,isidealーy
p1aced..,toplayaleadingro-einthemovementto
amoreethicalandsustainablefuture.”
Similarly,widelyexperiencedprofessorandcon-
sultant,HarvardBusinessSchoo-’sMikeBeer(2014,p.61),argues:
VViththecorporatescandalsofthe
pastde-
cade,clearevidencethatwearedoingdam‐
agetoourplanet,andthegreatrecessionof
2008...higherambitionCE0sarereframingthe
purpose
of
their
firm
from
increasing
shareholdervaluetocontributingtoallstake‐
holders..,.Thistrendisopenlngupnewop-
portunitiesforthefield
ofODto
helpthese
higher
ambition
ーeaders
to
create
a better
world.ト{igherambitioncompaniesintegrate
head,heart,andhands.
288
ChaPter9
0増ロ′7′zq”○〃上)g1窄め野川emq′7dSe′7se‐A‘‘”鱈′7g月PProqc力釧
Are OD Values Unlversa1?
onechallengeleveledatODiswhethertheapproach andthevaluesunderpinningit
arerelevant outsideofthe United
States, whereitwas predominantly developed,As
withtheissueofthecontinuingrelevanceofOD values overtime(aspreviouslydis‐
cussed),debateovertheglobalappropriatenessofoDvaluescontinues(see,e.g,,Sorenson
and aeger,2014),
Some advocatesportray OD changevaluesasbeinguniversal, with culturaldiffer…
encesservingas“aveneerwhichcoverscommon 和ndamentalhumanexistence”(B1akeetal,,2000,p.60),Forexample,B1akeetal.(2000)claimthattheclassic 賜の?αgerZ”/
ror乙eααg′随わノGr彰 丘ameworkdevelopedby RobertB1akeandJane Moutoninthe
l960shasbeenappliedsuccess範1lyin manydi掻erentcountries,ForB1akeetal,(2000,
p,54)this丘amework was“probablythefirstsystematic,comprehensive approachto
organizationalchange”andhadplayedacentralroleinthedevelopmentofOD.They
arguethatthe
grid
sustains
and
extends
core
oD values
in
seeking greater
candor,openness,andtrustin organizations,Thegrid mapssevenleadershipstylesthatvary
intermsoftheiremphasisonpeopleversusresults:controlling,accommodating,status
quo,indifferent,paternalist,opportunist,and
sound-the
latter
style being pre長)rred
inso住もrasitportraysaleadershipstylethatisconcernedForbothresultsand people
(B1akeetal.,2000).
The
gridhasbeen used
as
the basis
for
change
leadership
seminars,helpingto
establishbothindividualawarenessandskills,lnresponsetothequestionofthegrid’s
applicabilityoutsideoftheUnitedStates,theyclaim thatithasbeenusedextensively
・n a variety ofcountries(includingwithin Asia),in partbecauseof“itsabilityto
e鈷ectivelyemployauniversalmodeiofef]℃〉ctive managementandorganiZation deve1一
opmentwithin diversecultures”(B1akeetal.,2000,p,59).Similarly,免rSorenson
and ¥aeger(2014,p.58)theevidence 丘om yearsofapplication ofODin diverse
countries
is
that
national
cultural
values
are
more
akin
to “a
veneerthat
covers
morefundamentalanduniversalneeds,needswhicharereflectedinthefundamental
valuesofOD,“
HOWever,otheroD advocatesaremorecircumspectabouthow 魚rthe oD approach
isrelevantacrossculturalboundaries.Forexample,Marshak(1993)contendsthatthere
are 和ndamentally diぼerent assumptions underlying Eastern(Con和cian/Taoist)and
western(Lewinian/oD)viewsoforganizationalchange.Thesedi都erencesareoutlinedintable9,3.Marshaにs(1993)viewisthat oD practitioners needto view with careany
assumptionstheymayholdthatoD practiceshaveuniversalapP1icability,Whileル1irvis
(2006)recommendsthatoDbecomemoreopentoapluralismofideasbydrawing茸ombothEasternandv~/esternstylesofthought,Similarly,Fagenson一E1and,Ensher,andBurke
(2004,p,461),basedonthefindingsofaseve距nationstudy,concludethat”oD practi-
tioners
shouldcarefullyconsider dimensions
ofnationalculture when recommending
specificoDinterventions,“
Engaglngin Large‐Scale Change
oneofthebiggestchallengestothetraditionaloDfieldwasthecriticismthatitwasill
suitedtohandlelarge‐scaleorganizationalchange,TraditionaloDtechniques化)cusedon
ChaPter9
0′耳の7Zz倣わ“Del’どめ力用例?その7dSe〃鰍多崩毎虚′7g月PP化’”〆?es
289
291
TABLE9.3
Lewinian/ODAssumptーons
confucian/下aoistAssumPtionslsODChange
Cul顔reBound?
・Linear(movementfrompasttopresent
・ Cydical(constantebbandflow)
tofuture)
・Pro9ressive(newstatemoredesirable)
・ Processionaー(harmoniousmovement
fromonestatetoanother)
・ Goaloriented(specificendstateinmind) ・Journeyoriented(cydicalchange,
thereforenoendstate)
・ Basedoncreatingdisequillbrium(by
. Basedonmaintainingequillbrium
alteringcurrentfieldofforces)
(achievenaturalharmony)
・ P1annedandmanagedbypeople
・ observedandfolーowedbyinvolved
separatefromchangeitseーf(appーication
people(whoconstantlyseekharmony
oftechniquestoachievedesiredends)
withtheiruniverse)
・ Unusual(assumptionofstaticorseml‐
.
・ Usual(assumptionofconstantchange
staticstateoutsideofachangeProcess}
as,intheyi作yangphilosoPhy,eachnew
ordercontainsitsownnegation)
rずnonlou
anothe
ourneyo
erefore
umptio
ntf「om
Source:AdaptedfromMarshak(1993).
workillgwithindividualsandgroupdynamicsthroughProcessessuchassurvey篤edback
andteam building.Such methodscameunderattack asbeinginsuぜicienttodealwith
thelarge‐scalechangesneededbyorganizationstocoPewiththehypercompetitivebusi‐nessworldthatcon丘ontsthem(ManningandBinzagr,1996,p.269).OD wasseenas“tooslow,tooincrementalandtoo participative
”tobethewayto managechangeata
time when organizationso代en錠cedtheneedto make maiorchangeandtodosowith
sPeed(BurnesandCooke,2012,p,1397).
Asaresultofsuchcriticisms,manyOD practitionersbeganto movetheir恥cus丘ommicro‐organizationalissuesto macro,large‐systemissues,includingaligningchangetothestrategicneedsoftheorganization(Worleyetai.,1996).Thishasledtothedevelopment
ofarangeoftechniques
designedto getthe whole
organizationalsystem,or atleast
representativesofdi掻erentstakeholdersofthewholesystem,intoaroom atoneandthe
sametime.
W/holesystem techniquestakeavarietyofあrmsandnames,includingsearchconfer-
ence(seetable9.4),範turesearch,real‐timestrategicchange,worldca発,townhallmeet-
lngs,simu-real, whole‐system
design, OPen‐SPace
technology,ICA strategic
P1anning
Process,particiPative design, 魚st‐cycleFulIParticiPation,large‐scaleinteractive Process,
andappreciative 範turesearch(AXelrod,1992;Bunkerand 用ban,1992,1997;Dannemi-nerandjacobs,1992;EmeryandPurser,1996;Fuller,GriffinandLudema,2000;Holman,Devaneand Cody,2007;K1ein,1992;Levineand Mohr,1998),Suchtechniques are
typicallydesignedto workwithuptothousandsofpeopleatonetime.
Thevarioustechniquesdoentaildiぼerences・Sometechniquesassumethatorganiza-
tionaIParticipantscanshaPeandenactboththeirorganizationanditssurroundingenvl‐
ronment;othersarebasedontheassumPtionthattheenvironmentisgiven(althoughitsdefiningcharacteristicsmayneedtobeactivelyagreedupon)andthatorganizationsand
their
participants
join
together
democratically
to
identi角
aPpropriate
adaPtation
292
ChaPter9
0′旨の7迄鯖め′7Del’〆○変77g′汀の7dSの?se‐み毎顔′7g4口Prod欲es
boardroom withmembersseatedaroundonelarge
ellipticaltable).
Participantssatatsmallroundtables(seating
four),Thepresentersexplainedthepurposeofthe
event
and
the
VVorld
Cafき
process,and
the
first
roundbeganwiththepresentersaskingthepartici-
pants
to
discuss
their
own
experiences
ofreally
good
conversations
and
what
itwasaboutthose
conversationsthatmadethem
”reallygood.”lnfu-
ture
rounds,presenters
asked
respondentstodis‐
cussquestionssuchas“VVhatcouldMOS1bellkein
fiveyears?”and”VVe’renowfiveyearsinthefuture
andMOS1hasattainedthesegoals.VVhatdidwedo
togethere’’(JorgensonandSteier,2013,p,396).
Postscript:ReactionstothisuseofVVorld Cafe
differed
between
participants. A1though
severaI
Proponents
of1arge-sca1e
interVention
approaches
are g1owing,sometimes
a1most
evangelicaLin expoundingtheirbenefits, Weisbord(1992b,pp,9-10)claimsthat
FutureSearchcon元renceoutcomes“canbequitestartling”andproducerestructured
bureaucratic hierarchiesinWhich”Peoplepreviouslyinopposition o賃en acttogether
acrosshistoricbarriersinlessthan48hours.” Resultsemerge
“withgreaterspeedand
increasedcommitmentandgreatlyreducedresistancebytherestoftheorganization”
(AXelrod,1992,p.507)enhancing”innovation,adaptation,andlearning“(AXelrod,
2001,p.22).
However,alongsidetestamentstothesuccessofthesetechniquesaredisagreements
regardingboththeoriginoflarge‐scale,whole‐system changetechniquesandtheirlikely
eぼectiVenessinhighlyVolat江eenvironments.some writersdisagreeWiththeVersionof
“OD history”thatdepictsthefieldashavingmovedovertime丘om a microtoa macro
Focus, They
maintain
that
large‐scale
techniques
haVe
always been
part
ofthe
OD
approachandthat“ODershaveastrongtendencytoneglecttheirpast”(()olembiewski,
1999,p,5).otherssuchasHerman(2000)maintainthatbecauseoftheneed 危r more
rapidresponses,systemwideculturechangeprogramsarelessrelevanttodaythan more
speciFic,situationalinterVentions
such
as
Virtualteam building and
management
of
宜lergerprocesses,
AJignedwiththiscritiqueistheissueoFthe熊asibilityofsystemwidechangesinan
era when“[t]heoldmode1oftheorganizationasthecenteroFitsuniverse,withitscus‐
tomers,share‐owners,suppliers,etc.rotatingaroundit,isnolongerapplicablein‘new‐era’
organization (Herman,2000,p.110),Asone OD practitionerargues,“rm notsurethat
‘system widechangeisrea且ypossible,sincetherealsystem ofteninclude[s]anumber
oFstrategic
partners who may neverbuyinto
changesthatfitone company but not
anothe (citedinHerman,2000,p.109).
However,others
disagree,For OD
consultant Susan Hoberecht
and hercolleagues
(2011),theincreasing centrality ofinterorganizationalalliances and networksinthe
(
JorgensonandSteier(2013)
boardmembersagreedwithonecolーeague’senthu-
siasticresponsethat”thiswasthefirsttimeinalong
timethatwereallytalkedtoeachother“andthat
”maybethisiswhataboard meetin9Cou/dbellke,“
another
respondedrather
ambiguous-y,“Y;es,this
hasbeengreatbutnowlet’sgetdowntobusiness”
(JorgensonandSteier,2013,p.396),Forsomepeo-
pie,anexperience-ikeVVoridCafeopensupanew
setofpossibilitiesastohowtheycould workwith
eachotherinthefuture;forothersitisdismissedas
a(possiblyinteresting)diversionbeforetheyreturn
to“businessasusual.“
ChaPter9
0′耳ロ′7′zq“o′7Del’e/oP′77e′””′7dSe′7se‐虜毎膚′?gえ口Proαじ方搭
293
business
world Provides
an oPPortunityfor
change methods With
asystemWide 化)Cus
becauseinsuch anenviion立lentagreaterthaneverPremiumisP1acedonthee鎖ective
oPeratingofinterdePendencies.lnsuch an environment, Hoberechtetal.(2011)argue,
large‐scaleinterventionshaveParticularrelevance.
Foran e]mーPirical.ybasedassessmentofVariousasPectsoftheeaヨectivenessoflarge-
scaleinterventions,seeWorleyetal.(2011).
圃圏 Appreciativelnquiry(AD
Techniques of“inclusion” aPProPriatetolarge‐scale orlarge-grouPinterventiontech‐
niquesledtothem beinglabeledaspartofa new ”engagementParadigm”(AXelrod,2001,P.25),a“new typeofsocialinnovation“(Bunkerand A1ban,1992,p.473),a“Paradigmshir (DannemillerandJacobs,1992,p.497),and“anevolutioninhuman
thought,vision
and values
uniquely
suited
to
our
awesome
21st
Centurytechnical,
economic,andsocialdilemmas”(weisbord,1992b,P.6).TheyrePresentedashi代from
the
emphasis
on
Problem-solving
and
conflict
management,common to earlier
OD
programs,to aFocusonjointenvisioningofthefuture.Forexample,Fuller, Griぜin,
andLudema(2000,P.31)maintainthatWithaproblem‐solvingapProachcomesthe
assumptionthat“organizing‐is‐a‐problem-to‐be‐solved,” ○nethatentailsstePssuch as
problem
identification, analysis
ofcauses
and
solutions, and the
development
of
action plans,
Contrarytothislogic,Fulleretal.(2000)pointtotheassumptionsunderlyingthe
APPreciativelnquiry(AI)apProachtochange,whichseekstoidenti~ whatiscurrently
worldngbestandtobuildonthiskロowledgetohelpdevelopand design Whatmightbe
achievedinthefuture.Theyoutlinethetechniqueasinvolving缶urstePs:
・ 上)為のyermgorapPreciatingthebestofwhatiscurrentlypracticed.
・ &厳粛〃gonthis]超owledgetoheIPenvision(ordream)aboutWhatthefuturecouldbe,
・ Des!g形刀gorco‐constructing(throughcollectivedialogue)Whatshouldbe,
. &姻ねZm乃gtheorganization’sdestinyorfuture.
ThetechniqueisalsodepicteddiagrammaticallyinFigure9.1.AねinustrativesamP1e
ofquestions食)rthis化’ur‐stepprocessisprovidedintable9.5,
lnthesetechniquestheactofParticiPation orinclusionofa widevariety ofvoices
itselfconstitutesachangeintheorganization.The”what”tochangeandthe“how”to
changecannotbeeasilyseparated.
lntheiroutlineofthebene負tsofAPPreciativelnqu江y,Fu且eretal.(2000,P.31)claim
thatit“releasesan outPouringofnew constructiveconversations,““unleashesaself
sustaininglearningcapacity withintheorganization,”“createstheconditionsnecessary
貴)rselforganizingtoflourish,“and“
Providesareservoirofstrength貴)rPositivechange.”
Thesearenot minorclaims. Certainly,thetechniqueshavebeenrePortedly usedsuc‐
cess鏡1lyin avarietyoforganizationalsettings(Weisbord,1999b).However,whether
these
aPProaches
are
successfu1in
achievingtheiroutcomes
is
diぜicu1tto
estab1ish,
beingbased mosto賃en ontheassertionsoftheirproponentsratherthan onrigorous
researchevidence.
294
ChaPter9
0増の7鳶α!わ′7Del’eわP′77g川口′7dSe′7se-脳劣αた′′7g月βProαc方es
FIGURE9iAppreciativelnquiry4-D
Cycle
A爺rmor′VetoP′C
choにe
ReprintedWithpermissionofthepublisher.FromAppreciatiVelnquiry,Copyright2007byCooperrider/Whitney,Berrett‐KoehlerPublishers,lnc,,SanFrancisco,CA,川lrightsreserved,
TABLE9.5AぬmustrativeSampleofAppreciativelnquiryQuestionsThefo=owingquestionswerepartofanAI-basedoDengagementthatconsultantMeghanaRao(2014,p.81)carriedoutinaU,S.socialservicesagency.
Stage
Questions
D′scove”ng
“Describeatimewhenyouweremostproudtobeamemberofyourorganization,仇′hat
wasthesituation?ぬ′howasinvolved?戦′hatmadeitaproud moment?”
Dreom
‘‘lmagineyourselfandyourorganizationhavebeenfast‐forwardedbyfiveyears.W′hat
doyouseearoundyou?仇′hatdoesthestructurelooklike?Howhavedientsbeen
created,retained,andexpanded?“
Des′gn
”W′hatwillyouridealorganizationalstructurelooklike?--people,systems?.” 恥′hat
structuresneedtobeinplacefortheorganizationtosustainandemployeestoflourish?”
Desr′ny
“W′hataretheactionitemsthatweneedtocovertocreatetheorganizationofthe
future?W′hatadditionalresourceswiーlbeneeded?“
RoadwayExpress,aNorthAmerican
industria曇and
capabilitiesforsustainedeconomicperf。rrnance.ーncommercialtransportationcompany,adoptedanAp‐
whatwascal-edtheBreakthrough
LeadershipPro-
preciativelnquiryapproachtochangeitscultureand
gram,150
RoadwayExpress
leaderswentthrough
management,VV。rking with
CaseVVestern
Reserve
persona-
discoveryexercisesinvolving
deve-○pin9University,thecompanyembarked。namajorlead‐
personal
vision
statements,identifying personal
ership‐training
program
to
deveーop
ski=s
and
strengths
and
weaknesses,developing
personal
ChaPter9
0′8の7迄猫′o″Dew/o脚打e旧館7dSe′7s抄八メロ膚′7g月口夢中qc方es
295
learnlngplanS,andexperimentingWiththeSebackin
theworksetting.Executivecoachesservedtofacili-
tatetheseProcesses.
ln
the
next
phase,David
Cooperrider,who
co-
founded Appreciative
lnquiry,worked withthem
in
convenlng summits(1arge 9roup meetings),each
heldovertwodaysandconsistingofacrosssection
ofstakeholders(customers,sta什,suppーiers,andoth-
ers).Theaim ofthesesummitswastoidentifywhat
the“ideal”wasfortheorganizationinrelationtoa
varietyofbusinessissues,Eachsummitwentthrough
thefourA1stages(discovew,dreaming,designing,
andde-ivering)tofaciーitatecooperationandcolーabo‐
ration
throughoutthe
organization,From
2000
to
2004,8,00ORoadwayPeopleexperiencedthispro-
cesswithover70summitsbeingheldinthistime.At
theendofeachsummit,inwhatwasreferredtoas
the“openmicrophone“segment,panicipants”pub-
ーicーypledgedtheircommitmenttoeachothertosee
thechangesembodiedintheactionplansthroughto
completioげ(Vanoosten,2006,P,712),
Vanoosten(2006)
[両面司 Positive organizationaIScholarshiP(POS)
Dubbedasa“new movementinorganizationalscience,”Positive organization‐aIScholar‐
ship(Pos)isanumbrellatermthatemergedintheearly200ostoencompassapproachessuch as Appreciativelnquiryandothers,includingpositivepsychologyand com・nunity
psychology(CameronandCaza,2004,p.731).POSdevelopedoutofaviewthatあrmost
ofthehistoryofoD,attentionhadmainlybeenpaidtoidenti夢inginstancesof“negatively
motivated change”(orproblems)in organizationsand designing change programsto
eliminatethem(CameronandMcNaughtan,2014).Followingthislineofargument,think
ingaboutthepositive
aspects
oforganizationallifヒーandbuildingchangeprogramsto
spreadtheseaspectselsewherein organizations--hasbeenrelativelyneglected.
丁lotakeaPosperspectiveinvolveswhatoneofits化〉unders,K1m Cameron,describes
as“fburconnotation (Cameronand McNaughtan,2014,p.447):
1,‘Adoptingapositivelensrwhichmeansthatwhetheroneisdealingwithcelebrations/
successesoradversity/problems,the節cusison 筆fegivingelements.”
2.“Focusingonpositivelydeviantperた)rmance,
”which meansinvestigatingoutcomesthat
arewellinexcessofany normallyexpected perlt)rmance,thatis,outcomesthatare
spectacular,surprlslng,orextraordinary.
3.”ぬ」ssumingan a日Firmative bias”involvesholdingtheview thatpositivitygeneratesin
individuals,groups,andorganizationsthecapacity化)rgreaterachievements.
4.“Examining virtuousness”involves
assumingthatall“human
systems” areinclined
toward“thehighestaspirationsofman娘nd.”
lnlinewiththecoaching metaphor,POScanbedepictedascoaching organizations
toidentifytheit”bestplays,”tounderstandthebehaviorsanddynamicsunderlyingthem,
and then
to
work out how to
spread them to
other parts
oftheir“game”(the
organization).
POS hashaditscritics.Fineman(2006,pp.270‐73)raisesfourissuesthatquestion
whetherPOScanreallyliveuptoits“positive
”alnコs.First,hequestionswhetherwecanreally
agreeonwhichbehaviorsare”positive.
“W/hatpasses危rbeimgpositivewinvaryindiflerent
296
ChaPter9
0増o′7′zq〃○〃上〉eye加野′77emα〃dSe′7s 脳超膚′7g月口Proqc方榔
enviromments.Fore×amP1e, 血 review血ganumberofresearchsmdies,hePojmtsouthow
‘“courageous,’‘principled’corporatewhistle‐blowersarealsoreadilyregardedastraitors,reneg‐
i
ngontheunspokencorporatecode(‘viftue’)toneverwashone’sd立ty 血eninpub=c,“
Second,he(2006,pp,274‐75)questionswhetherthepositivecanbeseparated丑omthe
negativeor whethertheyarereally“twosidesofthesamecoin,inextricablyweldedand
mutuanyrein危rcing,“ Forexample:
“Happiness maytriggerah騨dety(‘win my happiness
last?’).Lovecanbemixedwithbitternessandjealousy,山□gercan 元elenerglzlngandexcit-
i
ng.“By あcusing on positiveexperiences,he maintains,approachessuch as Appreciative
lnquiry魚il“tovaluetheopportunitiesfbrpositivechangethatarepossible丘om negative
e×periences,suchasembarrassingevents,periodsofanger,a鳶口ety,fear,orshame.“
Third,he(2006,p,276)pointsto how whatareregarded aspositivebehaviorsand
emotionsdi鐘er,notjustindi掻erentorganizationalenvironmentsbutalsoacrossdi鎖erent
culturalenvironments,Drawingontheworkofwritersonculture,hepointsouthow“[e]
茸usivehope,anenerg・zlngemotioninthe駅/est,isnotasentimentorterm prevalentin
culturesandsub‐culturesinfluencedbyConfucianism andBuddhism.“
Fourth,he(2006,p.281)suggeststhatthereis“anunarticulateddarksidetopositiveness,”
Thisoccurswherethereisalackofrecognitionthattherearediflerentinterestsinorganiza-
tionsandthatnotaupeop1erespondWeutoso‐canedpositiveprograms]駄eempowerment
andemotionalmtemgenceorpracticesthatimposea“cultureoffun”mtheworkplace.These
programs“haveam‐医edoruncertainrecord,andsomecanproducetheveryoppositeofthe
selfactuaロzationand員berationtheyseer(Fineman,2006,p.281),
lnresponsetothesecriticisms,de免ndersofPOSarguethattheilperspectivecomple-
mentsandexpandsratherthanreplacestheperspectiveofthosewho‘‘onlywrestlewiththe
questionofwharswrongin organizations”(Roberts,2006,p,294),lndeed,thosewhose
f
bcusisonthelatterquestion“mayinadvertentlyignoretheareasofhumannourishingthat
e副iven andcontributevalueto organizations,eveninthe 魚ceofsignificanthuman and
structuralchauenges“(Roberts,2006,p.295).Posispresentedas“concernedwithunder
standingthemtegrationofpositiveandnegativeconditions,notmerelywithanabsenceof
thenegative”(Cameron and Caza,2004,p.732).Ratherthanassumethatthereareno
umversallypositivev立tues,thetaskofP0sisto“discovertheextenttowhichv立tuesand
goodnessareculturauyin”uenced(Roberts,2006,p.298).Roberts(2006)suggeststhat
criticism ofp〇S maybeduetoacombj比ーationofthecriticsnotwantingtostepoutsideof
theircom云ortzone-anapproachto managingchangethatisあcusedonident的mgproblems-
andlackofconsideration貴)rtherelative出稼ncyofPOSasanareaofpractice,
Vvheredoesthisleavethe managerofchange? ontheoneside,proponentsofpOS
wishto change organizations with“animplicitdesireto enhancethequalityoflif宅貴)r
individualswho workwithinandareafFectedbyorganizations“(Roberts,2006,p,294).
0ntheothersidearecriticalscholarswhodonotlayoutanalternativecalltoaction貴)r
agentsofchangeso muchascautionthemiftheyassumethattheywillbesuccessfulin
the立”positive“ventures.lnstead,thecriticsofPOSurgePOSadvocatestorecognizehow
underlyingpowerrelationshipsandinterestsinorganizations(andbeyond)willlimittheir
actions;theyalsoareurgedtorecognizethatwhatpassesasbeingpositivewillvaryin
difヂerentcontextsandmaynotbesharedbyall,However,suchcriticalreflectionsdonot
seem to have
dented,in any signi賃cant way,theincreasing momentumthatthe
POS
movementhasgained,atleastinNorthArnerica.W′hetheritachievesthesamemomen‐
tum outsideoftheUnitedStatesremainstobeseen.
ChaPter9
0増mdzα“の?上}のぞめ鰯??emの7dSの7sgみdq膚′増月口ProQc力es
297
Cameronand MCNaughtan(2014,P,456)reVisitthefindingsofadecadeofaPP且cation
ofPOSideastoorganizationalchangecoveringsuchvariablesasv立tuousPractices(e.g.,compassion),humanistic values,the meaning短lness ofwork,high-qualityinterpersonal
communication,hoPe,energy,andselfe茸icacy.Theysummarizetheresultsas“Provid【inglsupportfbrthebenefitsofpositivechangePracticesinreal-world worksettings.
” Quinnand Cameron(2019)provideasummary,descriPtion,and discussionofpos’distinctiveapProachtoorganizationalchange.
圏麗璽
Dialogic organization DeveloPment
AsOD develoPedthroughitsvarious mani免stations,suchasLarge GrouPlnterventions
and Appreciativelnquiry,it was moving moreand moreaway丘omtheclassic,diagno‐
si driven,aPProachto oD(asdescribedintheinitialsectionsofthischaPter).Gervase
BusheandBob Marshak(2009)characterizedthischangebycontrastingthetraditional”DiagnosticOD”withwhattheydescribedas“DialogicOD.
”
Busheand Marshak(2009)contrastthecharacteristicsofDiagnosticandDialogicOD.Wrhereastraditional,orDiagnostic,ODemPhasizesthatanyproblemrequir宣1gchangecouldbeaddressedbyf立stapP1yingano団ectivediagnosisofthecircumstancesofthesituation,DialogicODtreatsrealityassu覇ectivesothatthepriority minterveninginanorganization
wastoidenti8randackdlowledgedi掻erentstakeholders’interpretationsofwhat節rthem was“rea亘ty.
”lnParallelwiththis,theroleoftheODconsultantmoved丘om beingtheProvider
ofdata食)r魚ct‐drivendecision ma姫ngtobeingthe魚c江itatorofprocessesthatencouraged”conversations”aroundchangeissues(Marshak,2013;BusheandMarshak,2015)(seethebox“FromtheoriginatorsofDialogicOD,GervaseBusheandBobMarshar).
By2005eachofushadseparatelyconc-udedthat
variousODchange
methodswerebeing
practiced
thatdidn’tfollowthebasicorthodoxiesfoundinOD
textbooks.Aーthough
we
didn’t
realーy know
each
otheratthattime,wedecidedtocollaborateonde-finingthe
premises
and
practiceswebeーieved
un-
der-ay
approaches
as
disparate
as open
space
下echnology,Appreciative
lnquiry,and
the
Art
of
Hosting,tonameafew,-na2009articleweorlg--
natedthenameandconceptof”DialogicOD,“based
ontheprinciplethatchangecomesfrom changing
everydayconversations
and
contrasted
itwiththe
foundationalformof○Dwenamed”DiagnosticODP
Laterweaniculated
keyideasderivedfromthe
interpretive
and
complexitysciencesthatleadtoa
DialogicODMindsetandthe”secretsauce”ofingre-dientsthatincombinationproducetransformationai
change.Thoseingredients,occurringin
nospecific
order,include:disruptionofongoingpatternsofso‐
cialagreementsuchthattheemergenceofnewpat-
ternsoforganizingbecomepossible;introductionof
a”generativeimage,“forexamples”sro/“ob′edeV1e/-
opme“もthatstimulatesnewthinkingandpossibili‐
tiesnotpreviouslyconsidered;anddevelopmentof
new narrativesthatbecomepartoftheday‐to‐day
conversationsthatguidehow organizationalactors
thinkaboutandrespondtosituations.
VVebelieveDialogicODisespeciaー-ye行ectiveina
VUCA【Volatility,uncertainty,complexity,ambiguity]
world
ofcontinualchange.Giventhoseconditions,
「Com′nueの
298
ChaPter9
0増α′7′zq”○〃 )el’e/○野川e′7!”′7dSe′7sgゐ仏αた′′7g月PProdcみes
insteadoftryingtocontroltheuncontrollable,Dia-
ーogic
OD
asks
leaders
to
enrich
stakeholder
net-
works,promote
open-ended
inquiry and
support
groups
that
self‐generate small
experiments
that
challengeconventionalwisdomandmayーeadtonew
outcomesnotpreviouslyconsidered,Leadersstayinvoーved
by
amplifying
and
embedding
new
ideas
and
practicesthatwork,ln
brief,leaders
become
Centraltothe DialogicOD approachistheviewthat“realchange’’onlyoccurs when
m加ーdsetsarealteredandthatthisismーorelikelytooccurthrough“generativeconversations”
thanPersuasionby”魚cts,”Aユtered口lin‐dsetsarerePresentedbychangesattheleveloflan-
guageandassociatedchangesatthelevelofactionstakenbyorgalはization members.This
changedapproachisalsoassociatedwithmoves丘om(1)seeingchangeasarelative夢 ma企
ageable,P1annable,UillearProcesstoonethatcouldbeunPredictablewith魚r丘om predictable
moves丘omdiagnosistooutcomesand(2)“theshi童丘omf鎚mgaProblemtocultivatinga
system capableofaddressingitsownchauenges”(Holman,2013,P.20)(seetable9,6).
ASOD continuestoevolve,itremainsa maior“schoolofthought
“asto how organi-
zationalchangeshouldbe managed.AJthough debateseXistasto what貴)rm ofODis
optmlal,貿ラnkasi(2018,P,67)arguesthevirtuesofOD as 危1lows:
Theideaoftopdowncentralisedchangeleadershipisbecoming moreand moreobsolete
aswedevolve丘om monolithicorganizationalstructurestonimbleandagiledecentralised
structures.Theneedofthehourisinvolvingcommunitiesofstakeholders,empowerment
acrossabroadswathoftheorganization,and態CilitatingPoly‐vocalconversationstodeter-
minethescopeandtheprocessofchange.
TABLE9.6HowDialogicODandDiagnosticODAreDif発rent:BaseAssumptions
DialogicOD DiagnosticOD
什owlわeODprodだ′oner
W′orkingWithPeoP1einaWaythat
Carryingoutdiagnosisofthe
中f7uencesrわe
createsnewawareness,knoW1edge,
organiZationalsituationbefore
orgdn′zo”on
andpossibilities intervening
W物ofimo火esc力onge
EngagingwithstakeholdersinWays
APP1yingknownexPertisetoidentify,hoppen?
thatdisruptandshiftexistingpatterns
p-an,andmanagethechangeina
ofnorms,beliefsandbehaviorsleading
systematicunfreeze‐change-refreeze
totheemergenceofneWpossibilities sequence
andassociatedcommitments
Zわeconsu′ton『お
AsaninvolvedfacilitatorWhobecomes
Asaneutralfacilitato「whoretainsa
o“en『of′on
partofthesituationbeingchanged
separatenessanddistancefromthose
beingaffected
PrivatecorresPondencefrom Bob Marshaktothe
authors,Marchll,2015,
sponsorsandframersofdialogicprocessesthatstim-
ulateinnovationandinvention,ratherthantryingto
maintainilーusorycontroーasdirectorsormanagersof
plannedchange,
Source:AdaPtedfromMarshak,R.J.2015.MyjoumeyintoDialogicorganizationdeveloPmem.ODPmαmo〃er47(2):4 52(丘omtablel,P.48).
ChaPter9
0増の7な倣わ〃上杉1’do脚778′7rq′7dsの7se-山名α膚′堰月ゑProαc角郎
299
However,nota旦 OD Practitioners aresurethata move官om tDiagnosticl OD to
DialogicODissu茸icienttoPosition OD OPtilnaily食)rbeingableto haveaninnuenCe
onhowchangeinorganizationsis managed.Forexample,both Worley(2014)andBar
tunek and Woodman(2015)arguethatthediagnostic‐dialogicdichotomyisunhelp範l
andthat”Weshouldbeta”dngaboutWhetheracomPrehensiveandsystematicdiagnostic
ODcanbeintegratedwithareallygooddialogicODtocreateapowerfulchangeprocess”
(Worley,2014,p.70).For Worley(2014,p.70),thedialogic-diagnosticあcusplacestoo
muchattentionon“ODasProcess“;hearguesthat賞)rOD”tocaptureitsfulIPotential
“
practitioners mustcomplementtheirprocessskillswithskillsandknowledge“relatedto
theprinciP1esand 丘ameworksofstrategyandorganization design.”
Aspartofachangethatinvolvedtheimpーementation
ofanewcustomerrelationship management(CRM)
system,theemployeesofafinancialservicesorgani-
zationwereaskedtorequestcustomerstomakean
appointmentatwhichtheirfinancialsituationwouーd
bereviewedfreeofcharge.Emp1oyeesweretomake
this
requestduringthecourse
ofregularover‐the-
countertransactions.However,thetargetednumber
ofappointmentswasnotbeing
reached,and
itap‐
pearedthatthe
barrierwasemployees
notfeelingconfidentaboutmakingtherequiredapproach.
lnresponsethefinancia-institutionarrangedfora
theatrecompanytocraftandpresentaplaythatilーus-
tratedtheconversationsandinteractionsinvo1vedin
the
interface
between
customerand
employee.A
ha-f-daytheatre
workshop
wasthen
conducted
in
which
participating
empーoyees wereinvitedto
ask
questionsoftheactorsandtosuggestchangesto
thescripttomaketheplaymore”realisticrAsecond
workshopfollowedatwhichemployeesvoーunteered
scenariosthatwouldmaketheplayevenmoretypi-
caーofthecustomerinterfacesituationsinwhichtheywereinvolved.Theemployeesthenjoinedthethe‐
atreactorsinactingoutthero1esintheevolvedscript.Fo=owingtheworkshops,acoーlectivediscussiontook
placeonproactivecustomerconversations.
Measuresmadefo1ーowingemployeeparticipationinthetheatreprocessshowedasignificantimprove‐
mentin
both
self‐efficacy
beliefs
andtask
perfor‐
mancecomparedtoa
controlgroupofemployees
whodidnotparticipateinthetheatre.
Badhametal.(2015)
MichaeI
Beer,ProfessorEmeritusatHBs
and
co-founder
of
consulting
firm
TruePoint
Partners
reflectingon50yearsinOD(Beer,2014)-arguesthat
ODisatacrossroadsintermsofitsabilitytobeinflu-
entia-,AccordingtoBeer,evenifanoDengagement
directlyinvolvesjustoneofthefollowingprocesses,theODpractitionermustconsiderhowwhattheyare
doingwi1lenhanceallthreeofthefollowin9:
1, Performonce
口/′gnme〃↑. High
performance
that
flows
from
the
organization’s
design,
processes,andcapabilitiesbeingaligned with
itsstrategy
2.Psycho/og′co/
o″gnment
The commitment
of
peoplethatfoーlowsfromalignmentbetweenthe
organization’scultureandhumanisticva-ues
3, copαc′ry六or/eorn′〃gondchonge・Theorganiza-
tionsupporting,onanongoingbasis,honestcon-
versationsonanymattersthatinhibitthefirsttwo
itemsintheーist.
300
ChaPter9
0増の7′zのめ′7)eye/○野77g″rq′7dSの7se粥毎膚′7g月PProqc/だs
1. Lawenforcement
pyle,B,S,,andCangemi,J.2019.organizational
changeinlawenforcement:Community‐oriented
poーicingastransformationaーleadership,orgo〃′-
zor′onpeve/opmem」oumo/(Winter81‐88,
2. HospitaI
Kamolsiri,P,,下ayko,P,R,M,,and Mu=in,V,2018,
TheimpactofoDinterventionsonhigh‐perform-
ing
teams
in
hospitals.orgon′zo”on
Deve/op-
menモノou「no/(Summer):51‐74.
3.Smalltomediumenterprises
Stewart,S,,andGapp,R,2017,Thero-eoforgan--
zational
developmentin
understanding
leader-
shiptoachievesustainabilitypracticesinsmallto
medium enterprises,orgon′zo“onDeve/opmenr
ノoumo′{Summer):33-57.
4. Mediaorganization
Birmingham, C.2012, HOW
OD principles
of
changestillmatterinanimpossiblesituation,OD
P「ocf′r′one「44(4):61-64.
園璽震園 Sense‐Makin9
AsdiscussedinchaPter2 he〃7zemreZerimageemPhasizestheroleofthechangeman-
ager
as
a“manager
of meaning”;thatis,it
emphasizesthat
acore
skillofa change
manageristhecapacityto 丘ame meaning 免rthoseinvolved.Timesofchangecanbe
confusingtothosea鈷ected,andakeyelementofwhatchangemanagersdothroughtheir
variousactionsand communicationslsconveyasenseof‘‘what’sgolngon.” organiza-
tionalchangeis
a processthatis
”problematic“interms
ofits
outcomes
”becauseit
underminesandchallenges[People’s]existingschemata,whichserveastheinterpretive
丘amesofre発rencethrough whichto makesenseoftheworlず (Lockettetalり2014),
Changeoften meansthattheleadersofan organizationareseekingtotakeitina
significantlynew directionand/ortohavetheorganization 範nctioninasignificantlydiぼerent manner.Todoso,thesense‐making processislikelytoinvolveasequence
that Mantereandcolleagues(2012)describeasbeginning with “sensebreaking”(as
theleaderschallengetheappropriatenessofthestatusquo),あ1lowedby“sense-giving
“
(their
attemptsto
reshape people’s understandings
ofthe
direction they should
beheading),
M[anagerslackingselfawarenesswillo賃enconveya messagethatisotherthanthey
would
intend.People
in
organizations
interpret managers’actions
sy]mlbolically,and,
TheU.S.ArmyKoknke,A,,andGonda,T,2013,Creatingacol-
laborativevirtualcommandcentreamongfour
separate
organizations
in
the United
States
Army.
orgon′zot′on
peve′opmenモ
ノourno/
(Winter):75-92,
Nonprofitorganizations
Gratton,P.C.2018,organizationDevelopment
andstrategicplanningfornon‐profitorganiza-
tions.
orgon′zo”on
Deve′opmenモ
ノourno/
(Summer):27-38,
Mergersandacquisitions
Marks,M.L.,andMirvis,P.H,2012.ApplyingOD
to
make mergers
and
acquisitions
work, OD
P「ocm′one「44(3):5-12,
8. China
Tang,Y.2018.TheoryS:A Chinesetransforma-
tive
ODframework.orgonizof′on Deve/opmenf
」omno′(Winter):77-98.
ChaPter9
0増αmzα『め″上)eve/o顎77の?rq′7dSe′7s 粥超殻′増月口Proα欲es
301
Particulady where 食)rlnal
co]mmLunicationsleave
ambiguity,suchinterPretations willfill
the “meanmg
gaP,” Good
change
managers
are
likely to
have
a
high level
of
selfawarenessandrecognizethattheircapacitytoprovideanarrativealongthelinesof”what’sgoingon‐and Why?
“-thatis,actingasaninterPreter-can meetaneed・Vvhatisatstake,accordingtolveroth and Hallencreutz(2015,P.3),isthatsensemakingiscentraltocreating
”thenecessaryawareness,understandingandwilIPowerneededtomakepeoplechange,
“
Drawing onthe/“だめreZerimageofmanaging organizationalchange,KarIVVeick’s(2000; WeicketaL,2005)sensemaking modelprovidesan alternative apProachto
the ODschool.Weicks(2000)PointofdePartureisto argueagainstthreecommonchangeassumPtions.
Thefirstisthe αssm“prわ〃 ザ!粥川α. Underthisassumption, P1anned,intended
change
is
necessaryto
disruPtthe食)rcesthat
contribute
to
alack
ofchange
in
an
organization sothatthereis
alagbetween
environmentalchange and organizational
adaPtation. HesuggeststhatthecentralrolegiventoinertiaismisP1acedandresults
丘om aFocusonstructureratherthan a 化)cusonthestructuringflowsand Processes
throughwhichorganizationalworkoccurs.AdoptingthelatterPersPectiveleadsoneto
seeorganizationsasbeinginan ongoingstateofaccomP1ishmentandreaccomplish‐
mentwithorganizationalroutinesconstantlyundergoingadjustmentstobetterfitchang‐
ingcircumstances.
Thesecond 餌sm“夢”o“な豹のα蹄q“〆α′α彰edc方α“81ePrりgm′?2Zs“蛇ded However,Veick
(2000)saysthatthisassumPtionisof旗Pitedvaluebecauseit魚江stoactivateWhatheregards
asthe化’urdriversoforganizationalchange.AsoutbLnedinchaPter2,thesedriversare:
・ 4〃卿のめ〃, WherebyPeoP1e remainin motion and mayexPeriment,e.g., withjob
descriPtions
・ Z)Zredzo〃.lncludingbeingabletoimP1ement,innovelways,directedstrategies
・ 月ロメ′ば α『ze〃『わ〃 α〃dz‘〃〆の/〃g.Such asuPdatingknowledgeoftheenvironmentand
reviewingandrewritingorganizationalrequirements
・ Re切ec抗え cα〃dZdZ〃Zem”わ〃. occurs when PeoP1eareencouragedtosPeak outand
engageindialogue,Particularly whenthingsarenotworkingwelI
These
drivers
emerge
f
rom
a
sense-making
PersPective
that
assumes “that
change
engagese鎖ortsto makesense ofeventsthatdon’tfittogether”(weick,2000,P.232).For Weick,mostProgrammedorintentionalchanges態iltoactivateoneormoreofthese
sense‐makingforcesthatassistindividualsin managingambiguity.
Thethird msm“pzわ〃ZSZぬ班 Qfz‘淫行雀躍78 mosto賃en associated with Kurt Lewin’s
un丘eezing‐changing‐re官eezing
change 危rmula. Un丘eezingisbased
on the view that
organizationssufier丘ominertiaandneedtobe“unfrozen.” However,
“ifchangeiscon-
tinuousandemergent,thenthesystemisalreadyun丘ozen.Furthere強ortsatunをeezing
could
disruPt whatis
essentially
a comP1ex adaPtive
system thatis
already working”
(weick,200Q P,235)・1fthereisdeemedtobeineぼectivenessinthesystem,thenhis
Positionisthatthebestchangesequenceisas危1lows:
・ Ereeze.Tbshow WhatisoccurringinthewaythingsarecurrentlyadaPting・ Rebα超刀ce.ToremoveblockagesintheadaPtiveProcesses
・ けがreeze.℃○enable 和rtheremergentandimprovisationalchangestooccur
302
ChaPter9
0増の7izdr′○〃上)eye/○功77e′7rq′7αSe′7seadq膚′7g月口Proqc/?es
lnthisview oforganizationalchange,changeagentsarethose who arebestableto
identiルhowadaptiveemergentchangesarecurrentlyoccurring,muchofwhicho宣enare
dismissedasnoiseinthesystem.
AsnotedinchaPter2,官omasense‐maidLngperspective,itisuPto managersofchange
“toauthorinterpretationsandlabelsthatcapturethepatternsinthoseadaptivechoices
[andlwithinthe丘ameworkofsensemaking, managementsees whatthe丑ontlinesays
andtellstheworldwhatitmeans“(weick,2000,p.238).Sensema頒ngis“asocialpro-
cessofmeaning construction andreconstructionthrough which managersunderstand,
interpret,and
create
sense 食)rthemselves
and
others
oftheirchanging organizational
contextandsurroundings”(Rouleauand Balogun,2010,p.955).
ln alandmarkstudyinusingandextendingthesense-ma1ローng 丘ameworktotheman-
agementoforganizationalchange,JeanHelmsMiUs(2003)lookedattheorganizational
changesat NovaScotia Power,alargeelectricalutilitycompanybasedontheeastern
shoreofCanada.From l982to2002,NovaScotiaPowerwentthroughavarietyofmajor
organizationalchanges,includi・ngtheintroduction of:
aculturalchangeProgram
privatization
downsIZ1ng
businessprocessreenglneerlng
strategicbusinessunits
balancedscorecardaccounting
jean HelmsMills(2003)めundthattherewereavarietyofinterpretationswithinthe
organization aboutthesechangeprograms. Drawingonthe workofWeick(2000),she
arguesthatthesedi掻eringsense‐makingactivitiesacrosstheorganization areindicative
oftheimportanceofunderstandingchangeastheaccomplishmentofongoingprocesses
formakingsenseoforganizationalevents,She uses Weicks(2000)eight免aturesofa
sense-makingframeworktoshow howtheyimpactedonunderstandingsoforganizational
changesmthecompany.Shedrawsout丘om each 危aturethej1implications云orchange
managers(seetable9.7).
Similarly,inastudyofdownsizinginTelenor,Norwaysmaintelecom organization,Bean and 日amilton(2006)pointtothe wayitscorporateleadersusedsense‐making
to丘amechangestothecompanyintermsofmakingitaninnovative,flexible,learning
organization.Afterthe
downslz・ng, while
some
staffacceptedthe
corporate“align-
ment“ 丘ame,others
adopted an “alienated”frame, 危eling marginalizedand 免aringfortheirjobsecurity.Theresearcherssuggestthat丘amingofchangeis丘agile,with
employees’interpretationsofsenior managementpronouncementsvarying丘omかの〃e
v可!血筋堰(accepting)to万α〃だ かeαた粥g(chalienging).Thatis,whenthechangeman‐
ageractsas
aninterpreter,thereisno guaranteethatthe manager’sinterpretations
willnotbecontested.
Asnotedinchapter8onthetopicofresistanceto change,peoplein organizations
canholdverystrongviewsaboutanorganizationincludingwhatit“stands貴)r“andhow
itshouldoperate,andthattheseviews(“mental models“)can makepeopleresistantto
changethattheyseeasinconsistentwiththeseviews.Aねotherwayofexpressingthissame
pointisthatpeopleinorganizationscanbedisinclinedto acceptthechange manager’s
ChaPter9
orgIqmzα”α7De・’e加野me′7rの7dse′7s凡堪αね′!g自愛Prod所es
303
h=
hH
′、C▼
h=
a
ld
m
滋
廠
meh
a
T
曲
SFF
S
Q
O
S
鰍
pーehavetomak
notjustasindMd
lsisconnectedt
emSuchassuptradeunlons.
e
toavarl
SUpenれSors,
changea
lreSpons
304
ChaPter9
0増mdz口方o′7Del’eお卵’だ′7rの可Se′7se霊蛋q膚′増月PPFDoc方釧
constructionofevents(i,e,,hisorherinterpretation).Asnotedinchapter7on change
communicationstrategies,thecommunicated messageisnotnecessarilythe messageas
understoodbythereceiver.ln regardtotheconstruction ofeventsasprovidedbythe
change manager,itisnotjustthatthere maybesome misunderstanding ofthe“story”
themanagerisseekゴ鴎gtocommunicate-thestory maybeWellandtrulyunderstood-but
itmaynotbeacceptedas“the 魚ctsofthesituation,“
Thesense‐makingapproach alertschange managerstothedi爺erent魚cetsthatinflu-
enceinterpretationsofevents,Atthesametime,itisclearthattheseinfluencesareo貴en
deeplyembeddedandlesstangiblethan aC1earsetofstepsthatcanbeFollowed,From
thisperspective,managersofchangeneedtobewhatBO1manandDeal(2017)describe
asmoreartisticthanrational,interpretingexperienceandexpressingitin危rmsthatcan
be免lt,understood,andappreciatedbyothers,
Change
managers
who
are
com危rtable withthese
concepts arelikelyto
findthe
sense‐making 丘ameworkofassistancetotheminexP1oringthe”tangledunderbrush”of
organizationalchange(BoimanandDeal,2017).Atthesametime,theyneedtobemind‐fuloforganizationallimitations
ontheirsense-ma]口Lngabi口ties,Thispointis 窟ladebyBalogunandjohnson(2004,p.545)intheirstudyofsense-maklngby middle managers
whenthey“questiontheextenttowhichleaderscan managethedevelopmentofchange
recipients’schemata,particularlyinthelarger,geographicallydispersed,modularizedorga‐
nizationsweare 血creasinglyseeing.’’
Metropolitan(apseudonym)policedepartmentbe‐
gan
a
change
processthatinvo1ved
an
organiza-
tionalrestructuringinwhichanincreasedshareof
resourceswasa-locatedtopro‐activePolicing(in-
temgencegathering)andtoa modeoforganーz-ng
thatprioritized
havingthecapacitytorapidlyde-
ploy
police when
and
where
they were
needed.The
change
managers’narrative
emphasized
the
importance
of
the
need
to
makethese
specific
changessothatthepolicecouldbemore”fーexible“
and
byso
doing
deal
more
effectively with
orga-
nized
crime,which wasdemonstrating
acapacitytospeedilyform and/ordisbandcriminalteamsto
meetcurrentneeds,
1n
chapter
8, We
窟ーade
the
point
that
the
simple
dichotomy“managers
lead
change,workersresistchange”wassimplisticanddidnotserveuswellifwewished
to
have
a
deeper
and
more
useful
understanding
ofresistance
to organizational
change,AsimilarandequallysiIローplisticdichotomyissometimesapP1iedtotherole
Dunfordetal.(2013)
However,theframingoftheneedforchangeasa
matterofneeded
”flexibility“was
notviewedthat
way
by
many
ofthe
police
because
they
experi‐
encedthechangeasinvolvingtheregularturnover
insquadmembership.Thesignificanceofthisexpe-
riencewasthatconsistencyandlongevityofsquad
membershipwereseenbymanypo1iceasvitalele-
ments
in
producing
both deep
knowledge
about
specificareasofcrime(e,9,,armedrobbery)and
deepre1ationsoftrust(betweensquad members),whichtheysawascentraltoeffectivePO1icing,
ChaPter9
0増の7鳶α“○〃上)eve/○胆??e旧館7αSの7se虜毎膚′7g月口Prodches
305
ofmanagersinregardtosense-makingandsense‐giving,1ntimesofchange,an‐orga-
nization’s managersarecommonlyassumedtobethesense-givers who
contribute.-
o賃entoa majorextent-tothesense‐makingbyemployees.However,thecategoryof“manage
canapplyto alargeand diversebodyofpeople, manyofwho]m are not
part
oftheir
organization’s
most
seniorleadershipteam
and notfullyaware
ofalldetailsof“what’sgo・ngon.
” Consequently,insomechangesituations,asubsetofan
organization’s managersarelikelytoseethemselvesas moreontherecelv・ngendofchange ぐchangerecipientず)thanpartoftheteam thatisthearchitectofthechange
(seethebox“Brand Corporation: Where You ‘Sit’lnfluences Your SenseMaking,Even あrManagerず).
Brand
Corporation,the European
division
of
afast‐movingconsumer9oods(FMCG)multinationa-,announcedthatitwasreorganizinginresponsetodecliningfinancialperformance.Salesandmarket-ingstrategy,whichhaduptothatpointbeendeter-
mined
at
country
leve1, was
centralized
at
theEuropelevel,withotherfunctions(finance,IT,HR)tofo1ーow.
Asthe
centraーization
process
continued,mem-bersoftheUK managementteam
be9antodefinetheirsituationasonein whichtheyhad,ineffect,become
middle
managers
responsibleforstrategyimplementation,aーesserstatusthantheseniorman-
agerstheyhad
been whenthey
hadstrategycre-
ationauthority.Theysawtheirnewroーeasonein
whichtheywererarelyconsultedand wereonthe
recelv-ngendofdecisionsthatwerepredominantly
presentedtothemasfaitaccompli.Theseinterpre‐tationsofthesituationwereaccompaniedandrein-forced
by
a
view
thatEuropean
managers
werelargeーyinvisibーe.
This
negative
interpretation
ofthe
change
ex-
pandedtoincludethebeliefthatlocalandnationaー
knowledgeandpracticeswerebeingdevaluedand
thatthe”people‐basedvalues“theysawthemselves
aspracticingpre-changewerenotheldbythoseat
thecenter.FortheUKmanagementteamthismeant
that,inturn,thechange wasdefinedasproducingan
organization
in which
people were
notconsid-
ered
to
be
important,leading
to
a
disengaged
organization.
Balogunetal.(2015)
lnreviewingthesense-ma糧ng 丘amework,itisclearthatitprovideslessasetofpre-
scriptions貴)rmanagersofchangeandmoreasetofunderstandingsabouthowtoproceed.ltacknowledgesthe messinessofchangeandacceptsthatcompetingvoices meanthat
notallintendedoutcomesarelikelytobeachieved. However,criticaltoengagingthese
competingvoicesistheabilitytoshapeandinnuencehowthey makesenseoforganiza-
tionalevents.
風though(asnotedearlierinthischapter)OD hasbeensu翰ecttocritiqueasithas
evolved,thisismuchlessthecase貴)rsense-ma]bLng.Forane×ception,seeSandbergand
Tsoukas(2015).
306
ChaPter9
0増ロ′7′zq〃o″Del’eわの/77g′7『”′7dSの7s抄脳αた′′増月PProdc方釧
“The office”isa
Nordicfirmthatbegan
achange
processasa
resultofan
announcedforthcoming
merger.Aspanofthechangeprocess,thetopman-
agementofTheofficeputalotofeffortintoconvinc-
-ng
staff
that
the current
organization
was
substantia-lyunderperforming
duetobeing
over1y
bureaucraticandasaresultfailingtobetheinnoVa-
tive
organization
that
itwasintended
to
be,The
strategyofThe office was
presented
bytop
man-
agementtostaffasoutdatedandinappropriate,
Thediscrediting
ofthecurrentarrangements
at
Theo作ice-asdescribedabove--providedthebasis
fo「
”sense‐breaking,”
”Sense‐giving“ occurred
throughtop managementframingthe mergerasa
Wayinwhichthesta什ofThe0fficewouldbecome
partofanewandmuchhigherperformingentity,ca-
pableofoperatin9withaquality,flexibilityandlevel
ofcustomerservicethatTheofficecouldnotdeliver
ihitspresentform,Thissense‐91vlngsucceeded,and
thestaffofTheofficebou9htintothemessage.
1, Change managersshouldtrytoprovidea
cーear
narrativethatarticulatesthewhat,why,andhow
ofaproposedchange,
2. Humans
are
creatures
who
abhor
a
”mean-ng
vacuum”;intheabsenceofcーearcommunication,
theywil-drawconclusions,i.e,,attributemeaning
tofillthevoid,Thisissomethingthatanorganiza‐
tionshouldtrytoavoidatatimeofchangeasall
sorts
of
misconstructions
mighttake
hold
and
makechangemoredifficulttoachieve.
3,There
is
no
guaranteethatchange
managers’
attempts
atsense‐91vlng
will
besuccessful
as
organizationa-membersliveinaworldofmu1ti-
plenarrativesand,regardlessofauthoritystruc‐
tures,the
interpretationbeing
presented
bya
change
manager
need
not have
greater
Managers(incーudingthose-nachange man‐
agementrole)inanor9anizationare“interpret‐
ers“
whetherthey
like
it
or
not.They
cannot
choosetooptoutofhavingthisrole,Theironly
choice
is
how
consciously
orexplicitly
they
playthisrole,Managers’actionshavesymbo1ic
meaningandwillbeinterpreted(byotherorga‐
nizationalmembers)inthisway,lnthisregard
seeExercise9,4.
credibilitythan
other
narratives.For
example,someorganizationsarecharacterizedbyavery
strong
sense
of
identity,which can
give
the”whatwestandfor,how wedothings,whatwe
value,“
an
almost
moral
qualitythatcan
make
organizational members
very
disinclihed
to“switchnarratives.
“
Unfortunately,complicationsthenarose
inthe
inter‐organizational
negotiations,andthe
merger
wasabruptlycancelledlessthanaweekbeforethe
plannedmergerdate.Theoffice’stopmanagement
presentedthefai-edmergerasagoodoutcomeand
announcedthe
reintroduction
ofastrategyalmost
identicaltotheonetheyhad
beenfol1owingfor
loyears.Thereactionfrom Theofficestaffwas“a
sullenlackofenthusiasm“(Mantereetal.,2012,p.186),evenasenseofbetrayal.
Thetopmanagementhaddonesucha9oodiob
ofsense‐breaking
and
sense-giving
thatthe
pre-
mergerversionofTheofficehadbeenreframedby
staffasnolongerappropriateoracceptable,andthis
interpretation wasnotchangedjustbecausethe
mergerhadnotproceeded.
BasedonMantereetal,(2012).
ChaPter9
0増α′”zq方○′7上)g1’e/○P′77e′2『α′?dSe′7se-八仏α葱′?g自愛Prodじ/7es
307
EXERCISE
Thisexercise
requires youto
interview two
organization Developmentpractitioners
9l
abouthowtheygoaboutdoing・theirwork.Compareandcontrastthemintermsofthe
只理フorな方り削
fo=owingissues:
豹e月mm
・ theirbackground
乙粥e
・ valuestheyespouse
翻麗覆璽
‐ stepstheysaytheyuseinapproachingaconsu-tingassignment
・
tensionstheyidentifyin workin9asanODpractitioner
・
theirperceptionsofthewaytheODfieldhaschangedandlike-ychangesintothefuture
VVhatgeneralcondusionsdoyoudraw aboutthepracticeofOD?
EXERCIS
91
EXERCISE
Chooseacurrentissueinyourlocaーneighborhood.Thisexercisegetsyoutofigureout
9.2
howyouwoulddesignalarge‐scaーechangeinterventionprograminrelationtothisissue.
Des客川“gq
Giveconsiderationtothefo”owingissues:
Lα増eβcde
・
How manypeople wouーditmakesensetoinvolve?
Czzαねge
‐ Whereand when wouldyouholdit?
五“zerye“zめ“
・
How wouldyouensurethatyouhavearepresentativecrosssampーeofrelevantpeople
intheroom atthesametime?VVhatdatasourceswouldyouneedtoachievethis?
欄圏麹剛
・ Whoarethekeydecision makersinrelationtothisissue? Whatarguments Wilーyou
usetogetthemtoattendthe meeting?
.
How willyoustructuretheagendaofthe meeting?VVhatwould
bethebestWayof
doingthissothatpeople whoattendonthatdayhaveappropriatebuy-intoit?
・
How wouーdyouruntheactualmeeting?
・
軌′hattechnology wou-dyouneedto makeitworkwell?
308 Chapter9 0増口′7izm/o′7DのぞめP′77g′7rq′7dsの7se-崩必”た′′?gゑPProロメ7es
EXERCISE
語「getin2019 wasoneofthelolargestretaiーersintheUnitedStates(Walmaltwasno.1),9.4
butithashadtodealwithsomedifficulttimes.lnthedecadeto2014,Targersearn-ngs
上ねだりだす!“g
droppedfrom $3,2bi=ionto$1,5bi=ion withnetincomeasapercentageofsalessim‐
豹e
ilar-ydroppingfrom 4‐6 percentto 2 percentduringthisperiod.These were keye1
mentsofthecontextinto which
Brian Cornellarrivedin August2014asTarget’snew
万2Zemrerer-
CEO.Someoftheactionshethentookincluded:
CZzqngeの 1. He madeanimpromptuandincognitovisittoaTargetstorein DaHastotalktocus-
tomers.Notrecognizedbystoreemployeesorcustomers,hesoughtcandidopinions
from shoppers.Thisactionbythe CE0 wasasurprisetoTargetexecutivesbecause
itwasasignificantdeparturefrom pastpractice,Priorto Cornell’sarrival,storevisits
had
occurred-supposedly
as
intelligence-gathering
exercises--butthey
had
been”meticu-ouslyplannedaffairs,onlylessforma-than,say,apresidentialvisit“Withthe
store managersnotifiedinadvanceand“the‘regularshoppers’handpickedandvet‐
ted“(Wahba,2015,p.86).
2, WhenhefirstarrivedatTargersheadquarters(in Minneapolis),Cornellwasallocated
thenewlyrefurbishedcE○’ssuite,butheinsistedon movingtoasmallerofficeclose
toTarget’sglobaldata
nervecenter.Thelostaffmembersinthiscentermonitored
livefeedsfrom
socia1 media--includin9
Pinterest,Facebook,and
Twitter--andfrom
TV stationsto
-ocate
stories
and
information
on
product
launches,customer
com‐
ments,etc.Thenervecenterstaffwatchedsocial
mediaonlargescreensandused
softwaretoaggregatedataforlateranalysis.
3,VVith
the
intention
of
putting
pressure
on
Amazon
and
VValmart,Corne= changed
Target’spolicytooneofferingfreeshippingforonlineordersduringtheholidays,a
”decisionthatwas
made
in
a
matterofdays
ratherthanthe
months
itwould
have
takeninthepasで(Wahba,2015,p.88).
4.ltwasnotunusua-forCornelltoaskco=eaguesabouttheir”work-life”balanceand
especial-ytheirworkout
habits.He
encouraged
colleaguestotaketimeforfitness
activitiesand wasn’t“thetypewhoexaltsthe machismoofoutlandishhours”(Wahba,
2015,p,88),
5. Corne=
relaxedthe company’sdresscodeand
ate
inthecompanycafe where
he
mixed withstaff.
6. He movedthecompany’srecruitmentpolicytochangethesituationfrom one where
Targetwas‘‘longpopulatedbylifers”toone making moreeffortto”recruitoutsiders
withfreshideaぎ(Wahba,2015,p,94).
Considerthe
proposition
that
managers’actions
have symbolic
meaning
and
wi=
be
interpreted(byotherorganizationalmembers)inthisway:
1, VVhat
do
you
see
as
the
symbolism
associated
with Target
CEO
Brian
Corne=’s
actions?
2.lfyouhadbeenaTargetemployee,whatmightyouhaveconcludedaboutthenature
ofthechangehappeninginTarget?
Cose Source
Wahba(2015),
n“ゴのむ【の「の
○-噂口、二NQニヘミー.[Y隻雨、0【ミミ飛さ、ぬき丸鱗飛さ漆』ロキ、三崎心bb、oon飛”
WOの
310
ChaPter9
0′8口′7′zq“o′7Del’e/oP′77e′7rq′7dSe′7se-崩劣qk′′7g自愛iprodc方es
a
l
t
e
.m
g
e
o
Pr
e
バー
gavethem a
languagein whichtointroducechangeforimprovement,Similarly,illumi-
nationofthelocalmeaningofeffectivesupervision,highperformance,and whatconsti-
tutedagooddayatworkgavethose withleadershiprolesconstructsto work withfor
makingimprovementsandthelanguageforintroducingchange.
Managers,and
particularlyfirst‐linesupervisors,wereaskedtousethis
new under-
standinggainedfromthefindingsofthestudy.Theirnew understandingcouldbeused
tointerpretthelocaーmeaningofeffectiveworktocapitalizeonstrengthstoexpandand
developexistinggoodpracticesinordertoswampproblems,thatis,torenderproblems
lesstroubーesomeevenifunsolved,
Thefindingsofthestudyalsocouldbeusedasthebasisforexperiments.Membersof
theso‐calledLeadershipCore下eam wereinstructedtointroducechangeasanexperiment--
something
to
be
tried
and
watched
closely,and
after
a designated
time,if
it
is
not
workingashoped,itcanbestopped.Framingchangesasexperimentsrequiresthinking
throughwhatisexpectedandhowandwhento measuretheresults.Andbyinterpreting
the
possible
results
beforethey happen,all
outcomescan
be
positive,Even
ifthings
don’tgoashoped,whatdoeshappencanyieldlearning.AI1experimentsaresuccesses
atone-eveloranother.
Tom embracedtheframing ofchangeasexper-ment,anditwasprobablyhis most
b.A
reciativeln
uir
ChaPte「9
0増の7!zmわ〃D印可oP′77の7rq′7dSの?se-ルメロ膚′7g月口Prod欲es
311
Additional
Reading
Bunker,B.B.,andA1ban,B.T,2006.“?e 脚′?〆bのた け加増egrozの“筋力αお Crmr!〃g
sy財の打た 豹α万ge!“◇rgo打迄の!α7sα′?〆 の′mm‘“ZZだs.San Francisco,CA:J‐ossey‐Bass.Provides
detai1son methodsusedinlargegroupinterVentionsand multiplecasesstudiesillustrat-
ingthesuccessfuluseoflargegroup methodsinarangeofindustriesandcountries.
Bushe,G,R,,and Marshak,R.1(eds.),2015,D彰/ogco増加Zmz!o“Delだ/opme′7た “le物eoiγα〃〆″mmceげ『m〃駅α′??”『!om/c加増e.oakland:CA,Berrett-Koehler.Acompre‐hensiveintroductiontotheeVolvingfieldofDialogicODfromtheoriginatorsofthisapproachto managingorganizationalchange.
Cooperrider,D.L., Whitney,D.,andStavros,i.M.2008.劣Zzeゑ愛野だα煽れ’el“q”!′γ乃α“
booた めr/mαの ザc毎〃解.2nded.San Francisco,CA:Berrett‐Koehler.A detailedguidetotheapplicationofA1,mcludmgrationaleande×amples,from originatorsoftheconcept.
Cummings,T.G‐.,and駅煮orley,C.G.2019.0増α′2迄のわ〃Deve/op′“e′7『α〃〆c角α′7ge.1lthed.Stab〔lford,CT:CengageLearnimg.Acomprehens~eandclassicteぬbookon DiaきりlosticOD.
Kragヒ,A.,Sparr,J.L,,andpeus,C,2018,Givingand ma頴ngsenseaboutchange:Thebackand めrthbetweenleadersandemployees.おげ〃頒qfβ婚姻ess路γc加わ鰯33二71‐87.Providesa 丘alエーeworkthatidentifiesemP1oyeesense-ma]bLngneedsatdifiョerentpointsintheorganizationalchangeprocessandtheassociatedleadersense‐glv・ngactivities.
Quinn,R.E.,andCameron,K.S.2019.PositiveorganizationaIScholarshipandagents
ofchange.Rおseqrc方!“ ○増αmz傭わ″α/CI物α“geq“〆上)eveお廃れe′7Z27:31‐7.Focusesontheroleofthechangeagentfrom aPositive 0rganizationaIScholarshipperspective.
Roundup
Doyoumodelthechan9ebehavioryoudesire?
VVhose
interests
do
you serve
when
youengageinchange?
ls
your
approach
value‐laden
or
val-
ue-neutra-?
-fvalue‐laden,canyou
ar-
ticu-atewhatthesevaluesare?Areyou
comfortabーewiththem?
VVhatdoyoumeanwhenyoutalkabout
achangebeingsuccessful?VVhatcrite-
riadoyouuse?Dotheyreiatetoorgani-
zationaー
performance?
How
can
youdeterminethis?
Arethereotherpeople,inside
orout-
sideyourorganization,whohavediffer-ing
perspectives
on
such
questions?
VVhat
wouーd
you
say
arethe
criteria
they
L1seto
evaーuatechange?
ーsyour
organizationopentohavingconversa-
tionsaroundthisissue?
lfyou
manage
across
differentcoun-
tries,to
what
extent
have
you
ob‐
served
the
necessity for
different
ways
of
engaging
in organizational
changeinthosecountries?VVhyisthis
thecase?
Canyou
identifydifferentsense-mak-ingactivitiesgoingonduringorgan-za-
tionalchange?VVhatabilitydoyouhave
to
influence
these?
Do
you exercise
powerinyourattemptstoinfluencetheinterpretations
others
have
ofchange
situations?
VVith
whatsuccess?
VVhat
a「etheimplicationsofthis?
312
ChaPter9
0増の7皮α〃α7‘)eye/○卵77e′7『q′7dSe′78g‐肋函た′′7g月PPmqc/?es
HereisashortsummaryofthekeyPointsthatwewouldlikeyoutotake丘omthischaPter
inrelationtoeachofthelearningoutcomes:
国璽園 4P卿・edのe“?”・edmのノ殆どo増の7Zz研か7αc乃の7geの野oq所踏 切?彼の方刀7′′7g『庇coqc方 伽〆
!〃Zem′セZe“′?7αges げ〃m′7αg“?gc加′?ge.VVhiletwoofthechangeimages-cqrerq化erand′mr九げび一Presentchange managersas
rece1V1ngratherthaninitiatingChange,theotherFourimages-〆かecrの)coqcね′?のノをのO′;
and/′7rerpだだメーpresentthechangemanagerashavinganactive,asoPPosedtoreactive,
roleinhowchangeoccursinorganizations.Theimageofthechangemanagerasmα疏
isparticularlystrongintheaPProachtochangethathasdevelopedwithwhatisknown
asorganizationDevelopment(OD)anditsderivatives,includingAPPreciativelnquiry
(紅),changeasviewed 丘om withintheperspectiveofPositive organizationalscho1一
arship(POS),and Dialogic oD.Thecoachlinkisthateach ofthese apProaches
involvesencouragingawillingnesstochangeandthedevelopingofchangecaPabilities
inPeoP1e,ratherthansee]bLngtobringaboutchangebytop‐downedict,Theimageof
thechange manageras 粥だの岩ezerlinkscloselyto asense-ma]績ngView oftheroleof
thechange manager
坊7庇富加′7dz庇 0増加!z研か7Del尼定期77e′7『rODJ郷コ野川α飲 め 叱伽解.UnderPinnedbythe のqcAimage,the organization Development(。D)apProachis
onewhereitsadherentsPresenttheirdevelopmentalprescriptionsForachievingchange
asbeingbased,atleasttraditionally,uPonacoresetofvalues:valuesthatemPhasize
thatchangeshouldbenefitnotjustorganizationsbutthePeoP1e whosta甘them,
βeqnノαだ げexrem′o′7sげZ庇 OD の夢roα所 s.”cヵαs4PPだαのかe力川“/′)ぅPOSカハぞ o増研か
z傭わ′7〆S所o超な占め,の可 D!”わ部COD,lnchaPter2,wesuggestedthatthecoachimageisa metaPhor食)rthin麺Lngabouttheorganization DeveloPmentapproach, OD Practitionerscoach organizations
andthe
peopleinthemtowardintentionaloutcomes.Theseoutcomesareshapedbyasetof
valuesthatemPhasizehumanistic,democratic,anddevelopmentalaspirations,1nrecent
times,thesevalueshavebeenplacedunderthemicroscopeintermsoftheiruniversal
apP1icability,inParticularregardingtheiraPplicabilityinanenvironmentthataPPears
to demandradical,notdevelopmentalchange-an
era wherethe bottom linerather
than democraticvaluesaPpearsto haveahigherPriorityforengaginginchange.
ofcourse,theredoesnotnecessarilyhavetobeadichotomouschoicebetweena免cus
on Peopleand a 危cusonthebottom line;one mayleadtotheother. Nevertheless,
adherentstotheOD approach havehadtoreassesshowtheirapProachto managing
changecanbeadaptedtothechangingtimes,
ChaPter
lowiuPickupthisthemeinmoredetail;su甘iceittosaythatWee×Pect
thattheoD aPProachis1ikelytoremainastrongcontender云or managingchangein
thefuture,However,itisalsolikelythatitwillloseitsdistinctive,traditionalcharacter
asitismoldedin di鎖erent ways.Somechanges moveoD moreinthe directionof
deliveringtangible,measurableoutPuts,whileotherssuchasPOSexplicitlyassertthe
imPortanceoforganizationalinterventionsthatimProvethe‘‘humancondition”inways
thatarenotreducibleto“traditionallyPursuedorganizationaloutcomes“suchasProf
itability(Cameronand MCNaughtan,2014),ThisevolutionofoDhasledsomecom‐
mentatorstosuggestthatthereneedstobegreaterrecognitionthatoDisnow not
園霞圏
樹霞圃圃
ChaPter9
6ケgdmz僻め′7上杉ve/○卵77e′7rq′7dSe理解黍〆”膚′7g月口Proqc/だs
313
oneapproachbutapluralityofapproaches.lfso,thengreaterclaritywillbeneeded
inhow ODistalkedabout,including whetherclassicornewerversionsofOD-such
asDialogic OD-arebeingre定rredto whenthetermisbeingused.
1国璽圏 坊可e都殻“〆功esem mαた粥gq刀Proαcた わ 豹α″ge.lnchapter2,wedepictedthesense-makingapproachtoorganizationalchangeasdraw-
inguponanimageofthechange managerasZ〃彫塑reだzlnthischapter,wehavebeen
abletodelvedeeperintothedi観erentelementsofthisimage,ASHelmsMills’(2003)studyofNovaScotia Powershowed,thereareanumberofdi鎖erentlevelson whichthechange manageras/′?定めだ『eroperates,each ofwhich requiresattention, Atthesametime,thisapproachdoesnotimplythatmasteringeachoftheselevelswillalways
enableintended outcomestobeachieved. Widerfbrces,bothinsideandoutsidethe
organization,wi且ensurethattherewillalwaysbecompeting危rces→vying危raprivileged
placeinprovidingfbrorganizationalmembersaninterpretation of“what’sgo・ng onhere”aswellas“whatneedstogoonhere.
”Theinterpreterimagethere危repointsout
tochangeagentstheneedtohavearealisticviewofwhatcanbeachievedinundergoing
organizational
change. Aュthough
managers
of
change
may
find
the
sense‐making
approachtobemoredifficultgiventhatitislesstangibleintermsof“whatneedsto
bedone,”itisalsolikelytogiveothermanagerscom危rtinrea茸irmingtheirexperlence
ofthemessinessofchangeandidentificationofnew waysofapproachingit.
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