Heart Health and Music: A Steady Beat or
Irregular Rhythm?
L. KAY METZGER
University of Missouri-Kansas City
nity education with moderate results (Luepker, Rastam et al.,
1996). The most effective programs have been with young
adults and school-aged children (Luepker, Perry et al., 1996).
Even though there is a growing awareness of the need for
healthier lifestyles and the rate of mortality from heart disease
has declined in the United States since the 1970’s (Levi et al.,
2002), cardiovascular disease still remains the leading cause
of mortality and morbidity (decreased quality of life) in the
United States (Luepker, Perry et al., 1996; Vale, 2000). For this
reason, it is a primary health care concern.
Music in Medicine
Medical practitioners in the United States have turned to
music to help address patient needs for over 100 years (Washco, 1933).
Since heart disease is currently the primary cause of mortality and morbidity in the United States, heart health or cardiovascular well being is an important concern for all of us.
Music therapy has been able to expand the use of music as
medicine in the last fifty years. Clinical practices attest to the
viability of music therapy for cardiovascular health. Nevertheless, research in the area of music therapy and heart health
measurements presents problems. Ideally this research would
be like the steady beat of a healthy heart. However, the inconsistencies in research designs and unclear criteria for selecting music resemble an irregular pattern of rhythm.
In the last twenty years, the medical professions
have tended to see the presence of music in the
medical setting as an antidote to a highly technological environment and nurses particularly have
promoted the use of music therapy as an effective
intervention (Aldridge, 1993).
Patients may also be amenable to music as an adjunct to
medical treatment. One recent study of 246 patients who were
scheduled for cardiac surgery showed that 81% of the patients
confirmed use of complementary or alternative therapies (Ai
& Boiling, 2002).
Music therapy, which began in the United States as a formalized profession in 1950, has continued to expand the use
of music in medicine. The American Music Therapy Association (2001, January) provides a monograph, Music Therapy
and Medicine, which documents several prominent physicians who endorse the role of music therapy as essential in
patient rehabilitation in the medical setting.
Importance of Cardiovascular Health
The human heart is a rhythmic muscle, and when it is working correctly, it contracts with a steady beat pushing out more
than 14,000 pints of blood a day (Martin, 2002). All human
beings rely on the heart’s regular and rhythmic pulsation.
However, there are numerous heart diseases from mild arrhythmia to a deadly heart attack that prevent this necessary
regularity. In fact, more people in the United States die every
year from heart problems than from cancer, chronic lung disease, pneumonia, influenza, diabetes and all accidents combined (Martin, 2002). There are specific heart disease risk factors such as sedentary behavior, overeating, consuming foods
high in fat and sodium, and cigarette smoking (Levi, Lucchini,
Negri, & La Vecchia, 2002; Luepker, Perry et al., 1996; Vale,
2000). Health care educators have concentrated on commu-
Music Therapy in Cardiovascular Well Being
Over the last fifty years, music therapy has developed clinical practices based on research which attest to the viability
of music therapy in areas vital for cardiovascular well being;
for example, stress management, alteration of physiological
measures such as heart rate and blood pressure, and positive
changes in mood and emotional states. Three recent narratives
by music therapists endorse this point. MacNay (1995) collected descriptive data on four adult male patients who were
L. Kay Metzger, M.M.E., MT-BC, is an Interdisciplinary Ph.D. student at the
University of Missouri-Kansas City in the areas of music therapy and health
psychology. The author wishes to acknowledge Dr. William Everett of the
University of Missouri-Kansas City for his guidance and assistance in producing this paper.
© 2004, by the American Music Therapy Association
21
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ABSTRACT: Heartdisease is the primary cause of death in the United States.Those who suffer from heart diseaseeither die prematurely
or suffer a marked decrease in quality of life. Medical practitioners
in the United States have accepted music to address patient needs,
including those with cardiac conditions, for over 100 years. Music
therapy practices attest to the viability of music therapy for cardiovascular well being. However, a representativesampling of research
in music therapy and heart health measurementsrevealsinconsistencies. In addition, researchersneglect to give sufficient criteria or details of the musical selections.These conditions in the research data
are analogous to an irregular rhythmic pattern. A steady beat at regular intervals is necessaryfor a healthy heart. Just so, a more consistent steady beat of researchdesignsand choice of music would allow
more predictable results for clinical practice and thereby promote
cardiovascular health.
Music Therapy Perspectives (2004), Vol. 22
22
Selected Literature Research Results
This analysis is intended as a preliminary study. A representative sampling of literature from 1952 to 2002 reveals more
information about music and measurements of heart health in
Japan, the United States, Australia, and Germany, and includes
professions as diverse as nursing, psychology, music therapy,
occupational therapy, and medical doctors. Samples were
chosen from an initial search of the literature if they showed
empirical methods and used measures of heart rate, blood
pressure, or emotional or mood states in conjunction with
music. In addition, the author included current studies along
with some that were referred to as historically relevant. Studies
were also chosen in order to represent various disciplines.
Although there are other studies done by the nursing profession in coronary care units and cardiovascular rehabilitation
programs, they show the same mixed results as the selected
studies. They conclude only that the use of music is not harmful and can have a positive effect on mood (Metzger, in press).
The ten studies selected had a range of 10-87 subjects and
used either college students or cardiac patients as subjects.
The heart health measures used for this analysis are heart rate,
blood pressure, and emotional or mood states. Heart rate and
blood pressure are cardiovascular changes that are readily accepted by the medical community as indicators of heart health
status (Aldridge, 1991, 1993). Stress symptoms, mental tension, and emotional factors also play a role in cardiovascular
well being (Aldridge, 1993; Mandel, 1996). The results of
these measures will be summarized; however, results are confounded by inconsistency in designs and methods. For example, some studies took measures before, during, and after
the music was played while others took only pre- and postmusic measurements. Music was played ranging from four
minutes to thirty-five minutes, and in two studies selected musical pieces were repeated three or four times (Davis-Rollans
& Cunningham, 1987; Iwanaga, Ikeda, & Iwaki, 1996). In one
study subjects were informed of a potentially stressful event
(Knight & Rickard, 2001). Another important consideration is
the difference between responses by reasonably healthy
young adults (college students) and somewhat older recuperating cardiac patients. Because of these differences, it is difficult to generalize about the effects of music on heart health
measures. The summary of the results emphasizes this irregularity in the research.
Many researchers in this area assume that sedative music
will decrease heart rate and stimulative music will increase
the heart rate (Bonny, 1983; Ellis & Brighouse, 1952; Washco,
1933). (The definition of sedative and stimulative music will
be discussed in a later paragraph on criteria for choices of
music.) Heart rate outcomes, however, vary as follows: Four
studies show a significant decrease in heart rate for sedative
music (Bonny, 1983; Iwanaga et al., 1996; Iwanaga & Moroki,
1999; Webster, 1973); one study shows a significantly smaller
increase during stress condition when listening to calming
music (Knight & Rickard, 2001); three studies indicate no significant changes in heart rate (Burns et al., 2002; Mockel et
al., 1994; Zimny & Weidenfeller, 1963); and two studies indicate a slight increase during sedative music (Davis-Rollans
& Cunningham, 1987; Ellis & Brighouse, 1952). Of those who
used stimulative music Iwanaga and Moroki (1999) and Ellis
and Brighouse (1952) indicate an increase in heart rate; lwanaga et al. (1996) report a decrease in heart rate; and Burns et
al. (2002), Mockel et al. (1994), and Zimny and Weidenfeller
(1963) report no significant changes in heart rate. Similar var-
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participating in an outpatient cardiac rehabilitation program
in a large Veteran’s Administration hospital. He used musical
tapes of preferred music for each subject and measured perceived exertion, mood, and time estimation at pre- and postexercise sessions. The music condition elicited perceived decrease in exertion for three subjects, higher scores for positive
mood in two subjects, and a decrease in time estimation for
exercise for two subjects. There were situational, demographic
and personal characteristics that may have influenced the benefits of music. The study is limited in generalization because
of the small number of subjects. However, it does emphasize
that preferred music listening could enhance participation in
exercise in a cardiovascular rehabilitation program.
Mandel (1996) demonstrated the use of music in a stress
management program for cardiovascular rehabilitation. She
documented the importance of psychosocial as well as physiological variables in restoring cardiac health. Using the principle that music therapy can be used effectively to reduce
anxiety and stress, Mandel (1996) conducted individual and
group sessions for patients and family members or close
friends. These sessions included song lyric writing, song lyric
interpretation, song identification, music-assisted relaxation,
and individualized music relaxation tapes. The staff cardiologist affirmed the benefits of music therapy and a large percentage of cardiovascular patients chose to continue to use
music therapy as an adjunct treatment.
Aldridge (1991) describes the use of improvised music therapy to evaluate Type A and Type B behaviors which are sometimes linked to cardiac risks. He proposes that possibilities for
discovering levels of flexibility exist to a greater degree in improvisation because the patient is an active participant in the
p~’ocess of assessment and therapy. Coping responses may be
discovered in these sessions because it allows a person to
develop creative ways of meeting specific demands. Aldridge
(1991 ) documents research that shows the link between physiological changes in heart rate and brain activity, thus affirming a mind-body unity. Improvised music is particularly salient
because “To play rhythmically is a whole-person activity” (AIdridge, 1991, p. 63). His theoretical article provides a basis
for research studies that wou[d record physiological measures
such as heart rate as they occur during improvised music sessions. This could help establish a link between the musical
experience and heart health measurements. While MacNay
(1995), Mandel (1996), and Aldridge (1991) affirm the relationship of musical experience to measures of heart health
and consequent cardiovascular well being, they do not provide statistical evidence. For that we turn to a survey of additional literature.
Heart Health and Music
23
Table 1
Summary of Results (HR = heart rate; BP = blood pressure)
Study
Subjects
26 patients intensive coronary care unit
Iwanaga & Moroki
47 college students
Iwanaga, Ikeda, & Iwaki
12 college students
Burns et al.
60 college students
Ellis & Brighouse
36 college students
Mockel et al.
20 medical school students
Davis-Rollans & Cunningham
24 coronary care patients
Webster
10 cardiac patients
Zimny & Weidenfeller
18 college students
Knight & Rickard
87 college students
Sedative Music
25-35 min
pre-post measures
Sedative and stimulative music
5 min, 48 sec
Continuous measures
Sedative and stimulative music
4 min, 36 sec
Each played 4 times
Continuous measures
Classical, rock, self-selected, & no
music
Induced stressor, 10 min
Post measures
Soothing and Vivid music
All S’s each condition paired with
reading~ min
During & Pre-post measures
Regular, irregular rhythm, & Arrhythmic music
6 rain
pre-post measures
Music used by anesthesia staff & no
music
12 min
During & pre-post measures
Imagery with/without music
15 min sessions 2 times a day for 5
days
pre-post measures
Sedative, stimulative, neutral music
6 min
Pre-post measures
Sedative music/no music
Induced stressor
23 rain
iations in results appear for the five studies using blood pressure as a measure. Bonny (1983), Iwanaga and Moroki (1999),
and Knight and Rickard (2001) state that there was a trend for
sedative music to lower blood pressure while Webster (1973)
and Mockel et al. (1994) found no significant differences in
blood pressure for music conditions. Stimulative music either
raised blood pressure significantly or showed no change
(Iwanaga & Moroki, 1999; Mockel et al., 1994).
Emotional and mood responses indicated by subject self
report or hormonal levels showed much more consistent results. Although the specific questions and type of surveys used
were not uniform, nor were they always valid or reliable, results of listening to sedative music showed a significant increase in positive mood for all of the nine studies that measured emotional response. Subjects stated that they felt more
relaxed and less anxious (Burns et al., 2002; Iwanaga et al.,
1996; Iwanaga & Moroki, 1999; Knight & Rickard, 2001;
Mockel et al., 1994), placid and at rest (Webster, 1973), or
happy and tranquil (Davis-Rollans & Cunningham, 1987). In
Changes
Trend.for decreased BP
Significant decreased HR
Significant mood elevation
Decrease in HR/BP, increase in relaxation for sedative
Increase in HR/BP and tension for
stimulative
Decrease in HR, increase in relaxation for sedative
Decrease in HR, increase in tension
for stimulative
No significant effects by music type
for HR
S’s less anxious during Classical
Increase in mean HR during all music
No significant changes in HR/BP
Mood elevation with regular
No mood change with irregular or
arrhythmic
Slight increase in HR for sedative
music
Mood elevation with music
Significant HR decrease for music
Decrease in BP for both
Mood elevation more/music
No significant differences in HR
Increased mood elevation for stimulative music
Low HR/BP increase/music
Significant increase/no music
Anxiety decrease with music
addition, Knight and Rickard (2001) found that the sedative
music decreased anxiety by 93%. Stimulative music elicited
increased hormonal outputs which indicated emotional arousal (Zimny & Weidenfeller, 1963). Other studies indicate increased anxiety and tension for stimulative music (Burns et
al., 2002; Iwanaga et al., 1996; Iwanaga & Moroki, 1999).
However, Mockel et al. (1994) reported lower levels of stress
hormones for all types of music with no change in mood for
stimulative music. Table 1 shows a summary of the results of
the selected studies.
The varying criteria for and lack of information about the
musical selections further confounds any overarching conclusions. It is generally accepted that sedative music has a regular
rhythm, minimal dynamic changes, consonance of harmony,
and a sustained melodic nature. Likewise, stimulative music
is based on strong rhythms, dissonance, dramatic dynamics,
and detached notes.
Four researchers used accepted definitions of stimulative
and sedative music (Bonny, 1983; Ellis & Brighouse, 1952;
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Bonny
Condition
24
Music Therapy Perspectives (2004), Vol. 22
Table 2
Music Used for Heart Health Measures
Study
Composer
Bonny
?
Iwanaga & Moroki
(1999)
Tchaikovsky
Rendition
Satie
Gymnop~die #1 (Orchestratedby
Mozart
Serenata Notturna, KV239
Serf selected
So Close
Blue Interval
Prelude-Afternoon of a Faun
Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2
Part of Rosen aus dem S~Jden
Viertes Streichquartett, 4. Satz: Rondo improvisato
Raga Ramdas Malhar
Eine kleine Nachtmusik-l st & 4th
Movements.
Symphony No. 6- l st Mvmnt.
The Moldau
Debussy)
Burns et al.
?
Ellis & Brighouse
Mockel et al.
Davis-Rollans &Cunningham
Alice in Chains
Hall
Debussy
Liszt
J. Strauss
H.W. Henze
R. Shankar
Mozart
Webster
Zminy & Weidenfeller
Beethoven
Smetna
?
Dvorak
Knight & Rickard
Chopin
Bach
Pachelbel
Suitable for age group
New World Symphony Final Move-
?
A. Leaper, Polish Orch–Naxos
G. Sinopoli, Philharmonia–DG
Antal Dorati, Detroit Symp Orch.-Decca
Sir Neville Marriner; Acad./SMF-~
Philips
?
?
From Blue Note #31
Victor Red Seal 17700A
Victor Red Seal 14433B
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
ML 5115 Columbia
ment (excerpts)
Les Sylphides
Air for the G String
Canon in D major
Iwanaga, Ikeda, & Iwaki, 1996; Zimny & Weidenfeller, 1963).
Others relied on prior use by experts in the field (Iwanaga &
Moroki, 1999; Knight & Rickard, 2001 ). Some studies set their
own criteria (Burns et al., 2002; Mockel et al., 1994; Webster,
1973), used subject preference (Burns et al., 2002), or played
music that was already in use in the hospital (Davis-Rollans
& Cunningham, 1987). Even though there are accepted characteristics of stimulative or sedative music, each person has
unique responses on different occasions. It is, therefore, necessary to validate a person’s individualized perceptions of the
music. Only three of the reviewed studies considered these
individual responses (Iwanaga, Ikeda, & Iwaki, 1996; Iwanaga
& Moroki, 1999; Zimny & Weidenfeller, 1963). In addition,
in some cases, there is insufficient information about the musical selections, which prevents replication of the study. Table
2 shows the details of the musical selections.
Iwanaga et al. (1996) demonstrate a good example of acceptable specificity and criteria. Their study gave the necessary details for replication, followed accepted characteristics
of stimulative and sedative music, and allowed the subjects to
affirm the musical perceptions of excitative and sedative. Stravinsky’s “Sacrificial Dance,” the excitative music selection, fits
the category of stimulative music. It has dissonance, detached
notes, and dynamics ranging from p to fff. “Sacrificial Dance”
also includes markings of sfand subito f. The piece is set at a
” CL 741 Columbia
ML 5065 Columbia
Claire Hamill, Dino music
brisk tempo of 126 with strong rhythmic markings such as
changing meters, marcatissimo and frequent syncopation. In
contrast, Satie’s Gymnop@die No. 1, the sedative selection,
has a clear melodic line, a consistent 3/4 meter, relatively
more consonance, and dynamics from p to ppp. The markings
include such calming indications as expressifet doux, lent et
grave, and sourdines.
Steady Beat versus Irregular Rhythm
Besides being excellent examples of sedative music and
stimulative music, Gymnop~die No. I and “Sacrificial
Dance” serve as appropriate examples for the analogy of a
steady beat versus an irregular rhythmic pattern. London
(2001) states that a steady beat is a series of regular articulations at a specific number of beats per minute, which gives a
perception of connectedness and motion. Grout (1973) describes irregular rhythm as a liberation from the tyranny of the
barline. It contains asymmetrical patterns that contribute to a
sense of location and dislocation of the rhythmic pattern and
beat which creates tension (Cooper & Meyer, 1960). The use
of steady beat and irregular rhythms are both important musical devices for creating a balance between familiar patterns
and novelty. In Gymnop~die No. I the listener experiences a
predominance of a smooth melody over a steady beat while
“Sacrificial Dance” preponderates in melodious spurts with
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Stravinsky
Light classical from romantic era,
popular folk, swing, CW
Symphony No. 4
4th Movement (excerpt)
Symphony No. 6
3rd Movement (excerpt)
The Rite of Spring;, “Sacrifice Dance”
Mahler
Iwanaga, lkeda, & I w a k i
(1996)
Composition
Heart Health and Music
25
frequent syncopation, metric changes, and unanticipated
stresses. These two musical examples aptly represent the contrast between research that moves forward smoothly like a
steady beat and research that is uncertain and inconsistent like
asymmetrical rhythmic patterns.
The inconsistencies in research designs, including the types
of subjects, and criteria for choice of music is like an irregular
rhythmic pattern and influences the outcomes substantially.
Conclusion
Cardiovascular well being is of primary importance not only
to medical practitioners and music therapists but to all those
who are concerned about individual and community health
in our country. Music therapy has a vital history for providing
support in medicine and cardiovascular health measurements.
Because medicine relies on scientific evidence, research validating the use of music therapy in heart health is essential.
Id.eally the cadence of heart health research should be like a
steady beat with consistency and predictability. The reviewed
research does not do this, yet, just as in music, its irregularities
serve a purpose. It creates a tension that can direct music
therapists to create replicable research designs in cardiac clinical settings. This would promote the use of music in cardiovascular well being and contribute to the improvement of
heart health.
References
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among middle-aged and older cardiac patients. American Journal of Medical
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(2002). The effects of different types of music on perceived and physiological
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From the representative studies, it is clear that we
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Appetite 155 (2020) 104801
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Appetite
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/appet
Music to eat by: A systematic investigation of the relative importance of
tempo and articulation on eating time
Signe Lund Mathiesen *, Line Ahm Mielby, Derek Victor Byrne, Qian Janice Wang
Department of Food Science, Aarhus University, Denmark
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Eating behaviour
Music
Sound
Tempo
Articulation
Eating time
Chocolate
Environmental factors
Recent research has shown that eating behaviour is not only influenced by factors associated with the individual
alone (e.g. psychological/physiological states) but also by the external factors determining the surrounding
environment in which one eats (e.g. lighting, colour, temperature, or music). The present research examines the
extent to which specific musical properties, namely tempo and articulation, influence eating duration. Two
experiments were conducted in which participants tasted and evaluated pieces of chocolate under the influence
of different sound conditions. The participants were not aware that they were being timed while eating. For
Experiment 1, two versions of the same composition were created with contrasting tempo and articulation. The
results showed that eating time was significantly longer in the slow + legato music condition, compared to the
fast + staccato music condition. In Experiment 2, we extended the scope of the research question to investigate
the relative influence of tempo and articulation, and thus included three additional sound conditions: silence,
slow + staccato, and fast + legato music. Overall results revealed a significant main effect of tempo on eating
duration as well as an interaction effect between music tempo and articulation. Eating duration was longer with
slower tempo, and legato articulation further increased eating time but only when the music had slower tempo.
In addition, the presence of music, regardless of style, significantly increased participants’ eating duration
compared to eating in silence. Combined, the results from these experiments confirm that music could be
employed as a contextual cue to modulate eating speed contributing to healthier eating behaviours such as eating
more slowly and consuming less food.
1. Introduction
Leading a healthy lifestyle, reducing the risk of chronic diseases and
obesity, and promoting overall wellbeing are inextricably linked with
“healthy eating”. This especially implies a consistent intake of nutri­
tional foods as well as positive/healthy eating behaviours. One facet of
such healthy eating behaviours seems to be related to the speed with
which we consume our food. Recent studies suggest that eating slowly
can have a beneficial impact on nutritional and digestive aspects, e.g.
reduced meal size/food intake, increased satiety, body-weight man­
agement etc. (Bolhuis and Keast, 2016; Leong et al., 2011; Otsuka et al.,
2006; Sasaki et al., 2003). On the other hand, a faster eating rate has
been reported to promote higher energy intake and been discussed to
lead to weight gain (Andrade et al., 2008; Zhu & Hollis, 2014). In an
experiment, Ferriday et al. (2015) investigated whether eating a meal at
a slower rate would improve the participants’ self-reported satiety.
Indeed, they found that people eating soup at a slower rate reported a
greater feeling of fullness (Ferriday et al., 2015). In addition to these
findings, Zhu and Hollis, in a study on cheese pizza rolls, found that
increasing the number of chews before swallowing prolonged meal
duration and reduced eating rate, thereby contributing to a lower food
intake (Zhu & Hollis, 2014). Further, in an experimental study by Martin
et al. (2007), participants’ eating rates were manipulated across a series
of lunch meals and food intake was measured. The authors found that
reducing eating rate by 50% (eating rate was determined by computer
instructions to each participant, prompting them to eat a bite of food at a
set rate, either for the duration of the entire meal or by reducing eating
rate midway through) decreased food intake significantly for male
participants (Martin et al., 2007).
Conversely, research on the role of distractions during meals indicate
that concurrent activities such as watching television, playing a game, or
eating in large groups contribute to higher food intake, in part because
of lesser responsiveness to satiety signals (Benelam, 2009; Smith &
Ditschun, 2009; Stroebele and de Castro, 2006).
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S.L. Mathiesen).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2020.104801
Received 6 March 2020; Received in revised form 7 July 2020; Accepted 7 July 2020
Available online 16 July 2020
0195-6663/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.L. Mathiesen et al.
Appetite 155 (2020) 104801
The implications of eating rate on factors such as food intake, weight,
and satiety appear to be incontestable, but dependent on a host of factors
both intrinsic to the food as well as the surrounding food environment.
As such, scientific explorations of how eating rate might positively in­
fluence eating behaviour are warranted.
This study seeks to investigate how making changes to the physical
environment can influence eating time. Specifically, the present
research examines the possible effects of using music to implicitly
manipulate eating speed, with a focus on the relative importance of
music tempo and articulation.
background music for the 11 subjects observed in a cafeteria setting.
They subsequently suggested that fast-tempo music increased the
average number of bites per minute, compared to slower music, possibly
due to an arousal effect, thus directly affecting time spent eating
(Roballey et al., 1985). In a 1986 study, Milliman concluded that cus­
tomers in a restaurant took more time completing their meals while
listening to slower music than those listening to faster music (Milliman,
1986). Likewise, McElrea and Standing reported that subjects listening
to faster music spent less time drinking a can of soda than subjects
listening to slower music (McElrea & Standing, 1992). More recently,
Caldwell and Hibbert (1999) investigated the extent to which back­
ground music’s tempo influenced actual and perceived time spent dining
in a restaurant. Much in line with the existing research, they found that
consumers spent more time dining when slower music was playing in the
background than when faster music was playing.
Common to these studies, however, is the observational nature of the
data collection/measurements, the relatively small sample sizes and the
use of familiar and/or pre-existing music, or music with varying styles,
genres, tempos or a combination of these factors. Despite the short­
comings among the existing literature, the findings strongly suggest that
music tempo influences food-related behaviours and experiences, such
as how much time we spend eating a meal/the rate at which we eat (in
particular that faster and more arousing music leads to spending less
time on eating and vice versa). However, additional studies with clearly
defined and consistent musical as well as taste stimuli are warranted to
provide a more accurate picture of the extent of these effects. Further­
more, it is of interest to investigate whether other musical features can
also exert an influence on our eating time, for instance articulation.
Articulation as a musicological term describes the way individual
tones are distinguished from each other when played (Repp, 1998). In
broad terms, the articulation of a tone can be located in a continuum
between legato and staccato. The former is typically characterised by
slight spaces to more substantial overlaps between the individual tones
(creating a sense of connectedness), whereas the latter separates suc­
cessive tones by noticeable gaps, shortening the duration of the tones
(Repp, 1998). Regarded as a central feature of music, articulation con­
tributes to the way music distinguishes itself from “sound” by adding a
layer of structure, order, and sense of time to musical pieces (Chew,
2001). Differentiation in articulation can change the expressive char­
acter of music, modifying elements such as the melodic line, phrasing,
timbre, or dynamics (Chew, 2001; Repp, 1998) and its salience to music
cannot be disregarded. However, to our knowledge, no research has
been conducted that looked at the relative influence of separate musical
parameters on eating time, in this case tempo and articulation. This il­
lustrates one of the crucial challenges in this field of research: Music
listening and eating are complex phenomena comprised of a multitude
of elements; looking only at singular parameters (e.g. tempo) might
present a limited overview of the question under investigation (e.g.
eating time). It is thus of relevance to combine certain parameters when
studying the effect of music on eating behaviour.
In a music and chocolate study by Reinoso Carvalho et al. (2016b),
participants were instructed to taste identical pieces of chocolate
(without knowing these were identical) while listening to two different
soundtracks. The purpose of the study was to investigate whether music
could alter the perceived perception of chocolate texture, namely
“creaminess” and “roughness”. Their “creamy” soundtrack was
legato-articulated and slower, whereas the “rough” soundtrack con­
sisted of dissonant, staccato notes and had a slightly faster tempo
(Reinoso Carvalho et al., 2016). The creamy soundtrack did indeed
enhance the perceived creaminess of the chocolate, as well as the
sweetness, as compared to the “rough” soundtrack condition (Reinoso
Carvalho et al., 2016). The question remains then whether a perceived
difference in mouthfeel can influence eating speed if music tempo is held
constant and articulation is the only variable manipulated.
1.1. Eating behaviour and music
Recent research has demonstrated that what and how we eat can be
influenced by what we might be listening to at the same time. In fact,
food extrinsic factors can alter the perception and experience of food and
beverages a surprisingly substantial amount
(Spence &
Piqueras-Fiszman, 2014; Spence, 2011; see Spence et al., 2019, for a
review). For instance, it has been shown that certain sonic properties as
well as specifically designed pieces of music are consistently and
robustly associated with certain basic tastes and mouthfeels, and that
these pieces of music can modify the taste and/or flavour perception of
the food or drink consumed while listening to them (Crisinel & Spence,
2010; Spence, 2011; Knoeferle & Spence, 2012; Crisinel et al., 2012;
Knoeferle et al., 2015; Spence and Wang, 2015Wang et al., 2015, 2016,
2019; Wang, Keller et al., 2017; Wang, Woods et al., 2015; Wang &
Spence, 2018; Reinoso Carvalho et al., 2015, 2016a, 2016b; Guetta and
Loui, 2017).
While the previously mentioned studies reveal an interesting rela­
tionship between sound and taste/flavour/mouthfeel, other fields of
research, especially consumer and marketing research, have investi­
gated the influences of different types of music and various specific
structural parameters of music on other food-related experiences, such
as purchase behaviours. For instance, one study reports that background
music played in supermarkets and grocery stores can influence behav­
iour such as in-store traffic and sales figures. Specifically, fast tempo
music resulted in a faster pace of in-store traffic and lower sales figures
(Milliman, 1982). A similar study examined how the style and genre of
the incidental music in a supermarket wine section affected the sales of
wines (North, Hargreaves, & McKendrick, 1999). German music
increased the sales of German wines while French music increased the
sales of French wines.
For more consumption-related behaviour, both laboratory and realworld studies demonstrate that music volume influences beverage
intake. Consumers tend to drink more when the volume of the back­
ground music is turned up, possibly because louder music is more
arousing than soft music, and people tend to consume more food, and
make more unhealhty choices when they are more aroused (Biswas,
Lund et al., 2018; Spence, Reinoso Carvalho et al., 2019).
Studying the effect of music familiarity on food intake and meal
duration, Kaiser et al. (2016) found that music type (in this case
instrumental background jazz music, English language pop songs or
German language pop songs transmitted either through loudspeakers or
headphones) did not significantly influence overall food intake. How­
ever, meal duration did differ significantly across the different sound
conditions. Participants thus spent more time eating while listening to
the less familiar music than to the presumably more familiar, native
language pop songs. Furthermore, participants rated their mood as
higher before and after the meal for all the music conditions indicating
that music affected the subjects’ moods (Kaiser et al., 2016).
Looking specifically on the role of music tempo on meal duration or
intake rate, previous research consistently reveals a relationship be­
tween the tempo of the music and the time spent eating. In a pioneering
study on the subject of consumption rate, Roballey et al. (1985) inves­
tigated the role of music tempo on number of bites per minute. The
authors argued that eating speed increased with the presence of
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Appetite 155 (2020) 104801
and tempo on eating speed.
Finally, we assess the impact of individual factors, such as music
liking and consumer mouth behaviour type (eating type) on eating
speed.
1.2. Individual differences
In addition, it has previously been suggested that music preference or
liking is linked to how positively/negatively subjects rate certain foods
(Spence et al., 2019). Often referred to as “sensation transference”, this
implies that higher liking of the music results in higher liking for the
food or drink (Kantono et al. 2016a, 2016b; Spence et al., 2019). It is
currently unexplored whether personal preference/liking may also
affect other parameters such as, for example, eating speed or meal
duration. It is thus of great interest to explore whether liking for the
music affects the amount of time people spend eating.
Finally, literature examining food intake rate, meal duration, and
caloric consumption has investigated to what extent food-specific and
perceptual properties, such as texture and mouthfeel, contribute to a
change in behaviour. This adds another interesting dimension to the
question of eating speed as it has been reported that food texture plays a
significant role when it comes to the amount of food and the speed with
which one eats (Bolhuis, 2014; Forde et al. 2013a, 2013b). For example,
studies have shown that liquid foods (compared to semi-solid or solid
foods otherwise similar in nutritional composition) tend to have a
weaker satiating effect and a higher consumption rate (Zijlstra et al.,
2008). This difference in intake has been attributed to the fact that liquid
foods are eaten at a much higher rate and does not stay in the mouth for
a long time, while the opposite is true for solid products that require
more chewing (Zijlstra et al., 2008; Bolhuis et al., 2014). It is important
to note here, however, that for solids foods (for instance a piece of
chocolate), thicker and chewy products stay in the mouth for longer and
thus leads to lower intake (Zijlstra et al., 2008; Forde et al. 2013a,
2013b; Bolhuis, 2014). It might thus be hypothesised that a creamier or
more chewy chocolate takes longer to eat due to longer oral exposure
time.
One question to consider here is that people exhibit substantially
different oral processing and mastication behaviours influencing how
fast/slow one might eat. In fact, research suggests that there are four
distinct groups of consumers, each preferring specific food textures and
performing different chewing behaviours, specifically, crunchers,
chewers, smooshers and suckers (Jeltema et al., 2015). Evidence sug­
gests that subjects with these different mouth behaviour types consume
food at different rates, specifically, smooshers tend to be slower eaters
than for example crunchers. That said, individual behaviour is not al­
ways consistent; how one eats a piece of chocolate today might not be
identical to how one eats it tomorrow. Furthermore, in order to adapt
foods to meet one’s mouth behaviour preferences, individuals might
modify foods to some degree. For instance, a smoosher might keep the
chocolate in the mouth for longer, letting it melt before chewing or
swallowing, while a cruncher might enjoy the cracking sensation and
breaking the chocolate down quicker (Jeltema et al., 2015). Although
evidently dependent on the type of food consumed, understanding how
consumers tend to process various foodstuffs orally can be of value when
it comes to understanding variations in eating time. Investigating these
factors might reveal to what extent individual mouth behaviour char­
acteristics contribute to eating speed.
2. Experiment 1
2.1. Hypothesis
The primary objective of Experiment 1 was to validate our mea­
surement methodology. We developed a novel questionnaire design, to
implicitly measure eating time in two sound conditions, where back­
ground music varied in tempo and articulation. This methodology is
further explained in Section 2.2.4. It was hypothesised that slower
tempo and legato articulation would be associated with longer eating
duration:
H1. Eating duration increases when listening to slow + legato music
compared to fast + staccato music.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Participants
A total of 137 participants completed the survey. Excluding data
from 9 pilot test runs, 3 participants who did not manage to playback
music correctly, and 28 who did not meet the required age limit of 16
years, the final sample size was 97 (54 women, 43 men), aged 18–100
(M = 44.88, SD = 19.46).
The participants were recruited at Forskningens Døgn (Festival of
Research) at Stakladen, Aarhus on April 24th, 2019. The participants
were informed that they would be evaluating five chocolate samples
while sometimes listening to music. They were instructed to perform the
evaluations via an online survey on iPads provided by the experimenter.
All of the participants gave their informed consent to take part in the
study via the survey.
2.2.2. Auditory stimuli
Two versions of a soundtrack were created. The soundtracks were
similar in harmony and instrumentation, but differed in articulation and
tempo. Both versions consisted of a harmonically consonant melodic
piano arpeggio over two maj7 chords. The slow version (45 bpm) was
legato-articulated with long attack and release parameters, whereas the
fast version (180 bpm) had very short attack and release times and thus
was staccato-articulated.
The soundtracks were created using Logic Pro X’s built in software
instruments (Steinway Grand Piano plugin). The soundtracks can be
listened to at https://soundcloud.com/signelundmathiesen/sets/fors
kningens-dogn.
2.2.3. Food stimuli
For both experiments, one type of chocolate was chosen, specifically
the 70% Saint-Domingue Origin dark couverture chocolate from Barry
Callebaut. This chocolate had previously been used in sound-taste ex­
periments due to its bitter-sweet balance and pleasant flavour profile.
Furthermore, the chocolate comes pre shaped in appropriately sized and
homogeneous callets (ø = 18 mm, see Fig. 1).
1.3. Aim and objectives
The overall aim of this research is to assess the modulatory effects of
different musical features, tempo and articulation, on eating speed. To
address this aim, the following objectives have been devised:
The first objective is to develop a robust and implicit methodology
for measuring eating speed, where participants eat identical foods in
identical sound conditions, obscuring that eating time is recorded.
Combining the results of the literature reported above, the present study
seeks to replicate the findings by Roballey et al. (1985), Caldwell and
Hibbert (1999), and McElrea and Standing (1992) that musical tempo
influences eating speed.
I addition, we investigate the relative effects of musical articulation
2.2.4. Experimental design and procedure
The study took place in the main hall at Stakladen, during the
Research Festival. A total of five participants could complete the
experiment at the same time sitting around a square table.
Individual iPads and a pair of Avantree ANC031 noise cancelling
headphones were provided for each participant. All participants were
instructed to wear the headphones for noise reduction since it was a busy
and noisy venue. None of the participants reported any issues due to
noise disturbances. The volume settings on the iPads were set at the
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S.L. Mathiesen et al.
Appetite 155 (2020) 104801
hearing the sound) and 3 (the continue click) thereby providing an
approximate measure of eating duration. This design obscured the time
measurement for the participants. The respondents were then asked to
evaluate on Visual Analogue Scales (VAS) how much they liked the
chocolate (anchored by “not at all” at one end and “like extremely” on
the other end) and how sweet and creamy they thought it was (“not at all
sweet/creamy” at one end and “extremely sweet/creamy” on the other
end). The overall study design is outlined in Fig. 2.
In the final and fourth section of the survey, the respondents were
asked to fill in demographic information (age, gender, height and
weight) as well as their liking of sweet and bitter food. At least one
experimenter was available for guidance and questions during the
experiment.
Fig. 1. Chocolate callet size and experimental setup.
2.3. Data analysis
same level to ensure that the participants heard the soundtracks at the
same volume and at a pleasant sound pressure level. The chocolates
were presented in small plastic cups on a tray, each assigned a threedigit number. In total, five samples were available, one for the prac­
tice trial, and four for the two sound conditions presented twice,
described below. Furthermore, a glass of tap water was provided for the
participants to cleanse their palates between trials.
The survey was designed using the Qualtrics platform and consisted
of four main parts. An introductory text requesting participants’ consent
and explaining the format of the questionnaire (that they would be asked
to evaluate chocolate in terms of its sweetness, creaminess and pleas­
antness while there would sometimes be playing background music) was
followed by a practice trial with no music (tasting and rating the
chocolate in silence). After being instructed to cleanse their mouth with
water before moving on, a short text slide explained that the next
portion of the survey would involve playback of music while tasting the
chocolates.
In the third portion of the study, four samples were presented in
random order (two trials with fast soundtrack and two trials with slow
soundtrack). The participants were instructed to 1) start playback of the
music, 2) confirm that they could hear the sound and start eating, and 3)
click continue as soon as they were finished eating the chocolate sample.
A hidden timer was set to record the time between 2 (confirmation of
A within-participants design was used, where eating duration was
the dependent variable and soundtrack types were the independent
variables. VAS scales were coded from 0 to 100.
To assess the main experimental hypothesis that musical tempo
would influence eating speed, we conducted a one-factorial (music type:
slow vs. fast) analysis of variance (ANOVA) with the amount of time
spent eating as the dependent variable and music type as the indepen­
dent variable. Average slow and fast eating duration measures were
created by calculating an average of the two repeated music types (slow
+ slow, fast + fast).
A multivariate repeated measures ANOVA (RM-MANOVA) with
liking, sweetness and creaminess as dependent variables was conducted
to examine the effect of music type on perceived sensory properties. All
pairwise comparisons used the Bonferroni correction and results were
considered significant at p < .05. Data were analysed using the SPSS
software (version 26.0, 2019).
2.4. Results
The one-way ANOVA analysis revealed a significant main effect of
music type on eating duration (F1,96 = 15.94, p < .001, η2p = 0.14).
Overall, participants spent more time eating the chocolates when
Fig. 2. Experiment 1, study design.
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S.L. Mathiesen et al.
Appetite 155 (2020) 104801
listening to the slow + legato music (M = 50.85, SD = 18.3) compared to
the fast + staccato music (M = 45.96, SD = 16.1) with a mean difference
of 4.87 s (p < .001).
In terms of the participants’ explicit chocolate ratings, RM-MANOVA
revealed that there was no overall main effect of music type on the
participants’ evaluation of the chocolate liking, sweetness, and cream­
iness (F3,94 = 1.69, p = .175, η2p = 0.05).
behaviour type) affect eating duration.
3.2. Methods
3.2.1. Participants
A total of 205 participants (139 women and 66 men) took part in the
experiment. Excluding data from four participants who did not meet the
required age limit of 16 years, the final sample size was 201, aged 17–67
years (M =33.81, SD =13.38). The participants were recruited during
the 2019 Food Festival, September 6–8 2019 at Tangkrogen, Aarhus.
The participants were informed that they would be evaluating six
chocolate samples while sometimes listening to music. They were
instructed to perform the evaluations via an online survey on iPads
provided by the experimenters. All of the participants gave their
informed consent to take part in the study via the survey.
2.5. Discussion
Experiment 1 revealed that participants spent significantly more
time eating a piece of chocolate while listening to the slow + legato
soundtrack compared to the fast + staccato soundtrack as expected. We
take the results of this experiment as evidence that certain musical
features do exert an influence on our eating behaviour, specifically, the
results indicate that listening to the slow + legato music leads to
significantly longer eating duration, supporting our hypothesis. This
finding is in line with previous observations that musical tempo in­
fluences a range of temporal activities or behaviours such as time spent
in a shopping environment or in a restaurant setting (Caldwell & Hib­
bert, 1999; McElrea & Standing, 1992; Milliman, 1986; North et al.,
1999; Roballey et al., 1985). However, it is unclear to what extent dif­
ferences in articulation contributed to the difference in observed eating
duration. Furthermore, this experiment did not account for how much
the participants liked the music, or any individual differences in terms of
eating style (chewing, smooshing, sucking or crunching the chocolate).
Whether music preference or eating style play a role in eating duration
thus remain to be explored.
Another limitation of this experiment is that while there clearly is a
significant difference in eating duration while listening to two different
soundtracks, it is still unclear whether there is a significant difference in
eating duration when listening to music compared to eating without
music. Experiment 2 aimed to address these limitations and further
explore the specific role of individual musical properties.
3.2.2. Auditory stimuli
The two soundtracks from the previous study were used. Addition­
ally, two new soundtracks were created to disentangle the auditory
parameters of tempo and articulation to evaluate their relative contri­
butions to the observed measurements. All of the resulting soundtracks
were similar in harmony and instrumentation and included thus slow +
legato and fast + staccato, as well as the new slow + staccato and fast +
legato. Fig. 3 shows an outline of the overall study design of Experiment
2, including an overview of all the soundtracks involved. The sound­
tracks were created using Logic Pro X’s built in software instruments
(Steinway Grand Piano plugin), and can be listened to at https://sound
cloud.com/signelundmathiesen/sets/food-festival.
3.2.3. Food stimuli
Experiment 2 involved the same chocolate as Experiment 1.
3.2.4. Design and procedure
The experiment took place at Aarhus Food Festival in September of
2019 and participants were recruited from the visitor pool at the festival.
The practical setup, design and trial execution of the experiment were
similar to Experiment 1; however, the chocolates were distributed as
complete sets of six individual plastic cups in a clear plastic bag.
Minor modifications were made to the design of the survey compared
to the one used in Experiment 1. As mentioned, an additional trial
without music was included as a measurement of eating duration in
silence. This silent trial would appear within the randomised portion of
the study together with the four soundtrack conditions. After all trials,
participants were asked to listen to the soundtracks again and rate how
much they liked them on VAS scales (anchored by “did not like at all” on
one end and “like extremely” on the other end), providing a measure of
music preference/liking. Beyond entering demographic information
(including age, gender, height, weight, and preference for sweet and
bitter foods) participants were also asked to indicate how they generally
preferred to eat chocolate, i.e. “I like to crunch my chocolate fast and
forcefully” etc., thereby procuring insight into individual differences in
oral processing behaviour. The phrasing of these questions was inspired
by Jeltema et al.’s model for characterising mouth behaviours (Jeltema
et al., 2015).
3. Experiment 2
3.1. Hypotheses
The primary objectives of Experiment 2 were to examine the dif­
ference between eating in silence vs with music, the relative effects of
music tempo and articulation, as well as individual factors (music liking
and eating type) on eating duration.
First, to assess the overall role of music on eating duration, an
additional trial was added, where participants were asked to consume
and rate the chocolate without music. Based on the silence practice trial
time recording from Experiment 1 (not included in the Experiment 1
analysis), which was at least 10.6 s shorter than any music conditions in
Experiment 1, we expect overall eating duration to be shorter when
eating in silence as compared to eating when music is present. Next, we
aimed to determine whether articulation influenced eating speed, spe­
cifically expecting that eating time would increase with legato articu­
lated music as a result of its qualities described in section 1.1. In addition
to the slow + legato and fast + staccato soundtracks used in Experiment
1, a fast + legato and a slow + staccato soundtrack was created and
included in the questionnaire. Finally, participants were asked to indi­
cate how much they liked each soundtrack as well as which of the
aforementioned eating styles they identified with the most. These aims
are summed up in the hypotheses below:
3.3. Data analysis
First, to take into account the presence of music (or lack thereof), a
RM-ANOVA was conducted with overall sound condition (silence, slow
+ legato, slow + staccato, fast + legato, fast + staccato) as independent
variable and eating duration as the dependent variable. Next, to assess
the relative importance of music tempo versus articulation, a RMANOVA was conducted with tempo (slow, fast) and articulation
(legato, staccato) as independent variables and eating duration as
dependent variable. All pairwise comparisons used the Bonferroni
correction and results were considered significant at p < .05.
H2. Eating duration when eating in silence is shorter than when eating
with music.
H3. Eating duration increases when music is legato-articulated vs.
staccato articulated.
H4.
Individual differences (age, gender, music liking, and mouth
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S.L. Mathiesen et al.
Appetite 155 (2020) 104801
Fig. 3. Experiment 2, study design.
Finally, to understand how music and individual factors influence
eating time, multiple linear regression was conducted on a data subset
only taking into account music parameters (tempo, articulation) and
individual factors (music liking, age, gender, and mouth behaviour
type). Thus, the subset consisted of response data only from the trials
involving music. Data were analysed using the SPSS software (version
26.0, 2019).
Specifically, when listening to either of the slow tempo soundtracks,
people spent significantly more time eating when the music had legato
compared to staccato articulation (p = .004). With the faster music,
however, there was no significant difference of articulation.
3.4.3. Music liking
Overall music liking scores revealed that people significantly liked
both of the faster tempos more than the slower tempos (F1,200 = 201, p <
.001, η2p = 0.50), and legato more than staccato articulation (F1,200 =
50.53, p < .001, η2p = 0.20). The results also showed an interaction effect
between music tempo and articulation on liking for the music (F1,200 =
22.39, p < .001, η2p = 0.10): within the slow music soundtracks, people
strongly favoured the legato articulation, whereas for the fast music
soundtracks, no significant difference was found. Average music liking
ratings are shown in Fig. 5b.
3.4. Results
3.4.1. Overall influence of sound
An RM-ANOVA including all sound conditions (silent, slow + legato,
slow + staccato, fast + legato, and fast + staccato) as factors revealed a
significant main effect of music vs. silence on eating duration (F1,200 =
65.09, p < .001, η2p = 0.57). Pairwise comparisons revealed that all of the
music conditions yielded longer eating times compared to the silent
condition (p < .001 for all comparisons). Furthermore, people spent
significantly more time eating when listening to the slow + legato than
the fast + legato music (p = .002) and slow staccato music (p = .036).
The mean values of participant’s eating duration while eating in silence
or listening to the four different soundtracks (measured in seconds) are
reported and depicted in Table 1 and Fig. 4a.
3.4.4. Predictors of eating time
Multiple regression analysis revealed that music tempo, music liking,
age, and mouth behaviour group were able to predict a small variance in
eating time (R2 = 0.05, F(6, 803) = 7.95, p < .001, see Table 2).
Standardised regression coefficients showed that age had the greatest
effect (older people spent more time eating), followed by mouth
behaviour group (suckers spent more time eating), tempo (with fast
music, people spent less time eating), and music liking (with more liked
soundtracks, people spent more time eating). The average eating dura­
tions of all mouth behaviour types are shown in Fig. 4b.
3.4.2. Relative influence of tempo and articulation
A two-way ANOVA with music type (tempo) and music type (artic­
ulation) as factors again revealed a significant main effect of music
tempo on eating duration (F1,200 = 5.78, p = .017, η2p = 0.03), but no
overall effect of articulation (F1,200 = 0.79, p = .376, η2p = 0.004).
Moreover, the results showed an interaction effect between music tempo
and articulation (F1,200 = 10.76, p = .001, η2p = 0.05, see Fig. 5a).
3.5. Discussion
The results from Experiment 2 first of all revealed a difference in
eating time between the silent and all of the music conditions, pointing
out that the presence of music during eating increased eating time
significantly, supporting our second hypothesis. Moreover, for the music
conditions, it was first and foremost the musical tempo that affected how
fast or slow participants ate, further consolidating observations from
previous research (Caldwell & Hibbert, 1999; McElrea & Standing,
1992; Milliman, 1986; North et al., 1999; Roballey et al., 1985). Any
significant effect of articulation on eating duration was dependent on the
tempo of the music. Specifically, when the music was slower in tempo,
legato articulation had a significant effect on eating duration, which was
Table 1
Means and standard deviations for eating duration across all sound conditions.
Sound Condition
Tempo
Slow
Slow
Fast
Fast
Silent
Eating Duration
Articulation
Legato
Staccato
Legato
Staccato
Mean
39.93
37.18
36.04
37.56
24.99
SD
16.42
14.78
14.76
15.29
12.88
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Fig. 4. Overall effect of sound on eating duration (a) and average eating duration grouped by self-reported mouth behaviour type (b). Standard errors are repre­
sented in the figure by the error bars attached to each column: ±1 SE.
Fig. 5. Relative influence of tempo and articulation (a) and average music liking ratings (b). Standard errors are represented in the figure by the error bars attached
to each column: ±1 SE.
forward, such research might benefit from utilising soundtracks that are
more obviously different in terms of preference, than the ones used here.
Although of preliminary and exploratory nature, the results of the
self-reported mouth behaviour type revealed insightful observations
regarding individual differences in terms of how long people took eating
the chocolate. There was some evidence to suggest that people tend to
process chocolate in different ways, contributing to how fast/slow in­
dividuals eat. Not surprisingly, eating time significantly increased across
eating types with crunchers and chewers generally eating faster than
smooshers and suckers. Of relevance to this study, regardless of selfreported eating type, the simultaneous presence of music while eating
did increase eating time for all groups, which points to the possibility
that music is an influential stimulus no matter to which mouth behav­
iour group one might belong.
Table 2
Multiple regression analysis with eating duration as dependent measure. * in­
dicates significance at 0.05 level, and ** indicates significance at 0.01 level.
Tempo
Articulation
Music liking
Mouth behaviour group
Gender
Age
R2
Number observations
Unstandardised B (SE)
Standardised β
t-Stat.
¡2.67 (1.14)
− 0.17 (1.08)
0.05 (0.02)
1.65 (0.55)
0.19 (1.15)
0.20 (0.04)
-.09
-.01
.08
.10
.01
.18
.05
804
¡2.34 *
− 0.15
2.21 *
3.00 **
0.16
5.03 **
not the case within the fast tempo soundtracks. The third hypothesis
regarding the effects of articulation on eating duration could therefore
not be supported.
In terms of music liking and mouth behaviour group, we found some
evidence that these individual differences contribute to eating duration,
supporting hour fourth hypotheses. Specifically, people strongly
preferred the fast music overall and especially favoured the fast + legato
soundtrack above the rest. Despite the fact that the regression analysis
showed that increased music liking was associated with increased eating
duration, this particular music condition was also the one in which
people spent the least time eating. Evidently, more studies are needed in
order to determine the influence of liking on eating duration and may
offer insights into which musical parameters to manipulate in order for
the soundtracks to have a great impact on eating behaviour, while still
being liked and contributing to better eating experiences. Looking
4. General discussion
While intuitively assuming that music can be influential in the
context of eating behaviour, it is important to understand exactly how
and to what extent these modulations occur in order to enable us to use
musical cues to implement changes in eating behaviour in a more
controlled way. The present study aimed to establish a novel method for
investigating the effects of music tempo and articulation on eating
duration.
Overall, the findings of this study showed that listening to music
while eating significantly affected eating time. Several explanations are
possible for the observed relationship between eating duration and
musical tempo, all of which need additional investigation and
7
S.L. Mathiesen et al.
Appetite 155 (2020) 104801
exploration.
First, the overall increase in eating duration while listening to music,
compared to silence, could be explained as a result of music distracting
attention from the eating activity. Music has previously been shown to
affect concentration, comprehension, and other cognitive tasks to
various degrees (e.g. better/worse task performance, reading compre­
hension etc.) depending, among other things, on the familiarity, pref­
erence, complexity, and style/genre of the music (Thompson et al.,
2011), but it remains to be investigated whether this is the case for
eating as well.
Secondly, a longer eating duration could be due to an entrainment
effect where subjects (either consciously or not) align their own chewing
rhythm to the beat of the music, thus resulting in chewing slower when
listening to slower music and vice versa. Similar autonomic responses to
music have been examined in research, especially pertaining to exercise
and sport where athletes utilise music motivationally during perfor­
mance, e.g. choose music of a certain bpm count to stimulate a certain
running pace (Anshel & Marisi, 1978; Edworthy & Waring, 2007). Evi­
dence has also shown that cardiovascular and respiratory responses can
be closely modulated by musical features. Specifically, in a study by
Bernardi et al. (2009), the authors found that crescendos and emphases
in music induced progressive skin vasoconstriction and that respiration
was closely related to musical amplitude (Bernardi et al., 2009)).
Furthermore, a study by Gomez and Danuser showed that fast, accen­
tuated and staccato music induced faster breathing and higher minute
ventilation, skin conductance, and heart rate (Gomez & Danuser, 2007).
In the case of our study, it seems likely that this synchronisation of
bodily rhythmic patterns to external auditory stimuli is a potential
explanatory venue for the changes of eating time observed here. How­
ever, further empirical evidence must be provided before we are able to
support this conclusion.
Separating the temporal and articulatory parameters in Experiment 2
presented an interesting interaction effect between tempo and articu­
lation. With regards to both eating duration and music liking, the slow
music conditions yielded the greatest differences, whereas any observed
differences within the fast music category were insignificant. This might
seem counterintuitive at first, and could be due to people perceiving the
differences in articulation more clearly when music tempo is slower,
since it could allow for easier processing of auditory information. In
contrast, when the music is faster, the differences in articulation could
be masked or overlooked in the processing activity (i.e. people might
have had more trouble telling the articulatory difference between the
two fast pieces of music). Our results point to the fact that articulation
has a greater modulatory role for slower music compared to faster
music. Research on this subject is limited; however, Geringer et al.
(2006) investigated how articulation style (either legato or staccato)
influenced the perception of tempo modulations in pieces of music with
either tempo increase, decrease, or no change. In general, tempo in­
creases were more strongly associated with staccato articulation than
legato passages. In their study, staccato articulation seemed to be related
to perceiving musical tempo as faster than it actually was (Geringer
et al., 2006). One might thus expect people to perceive the fast + stac­
cato soundtrack as faster than the fast + legato soundtrack, and as a
consequence eat faster when listening to the fast + staccato music.
Future studies should provide clarification on the apparent in­
consistencies here and evaluate more closely the perceptual processing
of structural musical elements, such as temporal and articulatory
properties.
In terms of music liking, we found that people significantly preferred
legato more than staccato articulation and the fast + legato music more
than anything else. This is in line with previous investigations reporting
that people tend to prefer music with fast tempi (generally above 130
bpm) (Geringer et al., 2006; LeBlanc et al., 1988). In the
above-mentioned study by Geringer et al., the authors found that legato
passages increasing in tempo were preferentially rated higher than
no-change or tempo decrease as well as the staccato articulated passages
(Geringer et al., 2006). The observed relative influence of music tempo
and articulation on music liking in our study reflected these findings:
participants rated their liking of the music higher when it was fast and
legato-articulated.
4.1. Implications and future research
In terms of practical applications, our results show that listening to
music of any kind affects eating time. This supports the assumption that
music could effectively be employed in numerous contexts where
modifying eating speed is desired. In Experiment 1, a difference in eating
time of ~10% between the two soundtracks was observed, demon­
strating that slower and legato articulated music yielded longer eating
time. In Experiment 2, we further explored the role of these musical
properties and, moreover, found that eating in silence decreased eating
time by ~30%. On the basis of these results, one might expect that
listening to specially designed music could be a helpful component in a
strategy to reduce negative eating behaviour, for instance where too
fast/slow eating is unwanted. Considering the current belief that slower
eating and longer meal duration results in less food being consumed
(Sasaki et al., 2003; Otsuka et al., 2006; Leong et al., 2011; Bolhuis et al.,
2014; Bolhuis and Keast, 2016), eating the same amount of food within a
longer timeframe presents obvious health benefits. By moderating food
intake rate in a seemingly substantial way, music could thus operate in
tandem with other strategies to reduce caloric intake and help combat
obesity. Notwithstanding these apparent beneficial implications, it is
crucial to take into account all of the factors that can affect food intake,
such as satiety and satiation, including elements such as gastrointestinal
volume, nutrient composition, food texture and oral exposure time
(Kissileff et al., 1984). In relation to our research, a focus on the role of
portion size seems relevant, since longer meal duration could lead to
increased consumption (Benelam, 2009; Martin et al., 2007; Smith &
Ditschun, 2009). Future research should therefore examine how pro­
longed mealtimes affect overall intake and satiety.
Contrary to slowing down eating rate, faster and more stimulating
music could be implemented in various places as a factor contributing to
a more energetic eating episode for people struggling to focus while
eating (for instance among cognitively impaired individuals, patients in
palliative care, or even drowsy teenagers at the breakfast table).
From a hospitality perspective, gaining insight into the relationship
between music and diner, the nature of the effects observed in the
present research suggest the possibilities of music being a primary
environmental stimulus in restaurants and cafes to regulate patron
behaviour in terms of how long (or short) a visit should be. Specifically,
restauranteurs could benefit from incorporating music, chosen based on
its structural elements, into the design of their establishments, which in
turn would offer new opportunities to make environments adaptive to
the dynamic nature of the restaurant visit.
Lastly, by influencing eating duration, music could be a staple
element of school cafeterias or large workplace canteens encouraging
healthier food attitudes of people eating in such places. Extended meal
durations, by way of carefully chosen music, could reduce stress,
improve meal satisfaction, encourage more social interaction during
eating, and return employees or students reinvigorated to the remainder
of their duties.
4.2. Limitations
Several limitations of this study should be mentioned. First and
foremost, the physical context of the experiment (eating alone while
wearing headphones at a food festival) was an unusual way of
consuming food. Going forward, it should be investigated whether
similar results can be observed in more environmentally realistic con­
ditions (e.g. social settings, at a restaurant, canteen, at home), with more
substantial taste stimuli (e.g. a whole meal) and with music played over
speakers.
8
S.L. Mathiesen et al.
Appetite 155 (2020) 104801
Another limitation to be acknowledged pertains to the music used for
the experiments. Although purposely made to not specifically resemble a
certain genre or style, be homogenous in terms of harmonisation and
melody as well as having fixed instrumentation, pitch, and processing
characteristics (e.g. reverberation, equalization parameters), it can be
argued that the ecological validity of the study could profit by using preexisting pieces of music with expressive qualities unfolding over time in
a more “natural” way. Furthermore, it was not possible to examine
whether it was merely the presence of sound, rather than music per se,
that influenced eating time. Similar studies in the future should thus
include a trial with white noise/generic background sounds to eliminate
this claim. That said, our results showed variations in eating time within
the music conditions, pointing to the fact that structural elements in the
music in fact do influence eating behaviour.
Finally, it should be noted that the measurement methodology used
here is only a proxy of the actual eating time and is dependent upon the
individual participant’s consistent way of performing the tests. In
addition, only a single piece of chocolate was eaten at a time which does
not resemble a realistic mealtime activity, stressing the point that future
studies should measure whole meals and/or non-indulgent foodstuffs in
ecologically valid environments.
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5. Conclusion
In summary, the present study offers empirical evidence that
listening to music while eating is associated with longer eating time than
eating without music. In addition, slower tempo music with legatoarticulation further increases eating duration compared to faster music
with legato-articulation. In conclusion, our study offers a better
comprehension of how music can affect consumer eating behaviour, and
our findings have important implications in possibly reducing unhealthy
eating patterns. Specifically, using music as a contextual cue to affect
eating duration could be a promising approach to positively impact
various health-related aspects of eating such as increasing satiety and
reducing portion size.
Ethical statement
All food stimuli in this study were food grade and commercially
available and the study was exempted from the need for formal ethical
approval from the Danish Council on Ethics. All participants did, how­
ever, give their written informed consent prior to participation.
Acknowledgements
This work has been supported by the Dean’s start up grant, Faculty of
Science and Technology, Aarhus University. None of the authors have a
conflict of interest to declare.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.appet.2020.104801.
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10
Psychomusicology: Music, Mind, and Brain
© 2021 American Psychological Association
ISSN: 0275-3987
2021, Vol. 31, No. 2, 59–73
https://doi.org/10.1037/pmu0000275
Neuroticism, Musical Emotion Regulation, and Mental Health
Dave Miranda
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
School of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ottawa
Recent personality research suggests that trait negative emotionality—traditionally known as neuroticism in the Big Five—is associated with musical emotion regulation in youth, which may imply that
young people who are more emotionally negative tend to listen to music to manage their emotions.
However, the various emotional mediators that bind neuroticism, musical emotion regulation, and mental health are not well understood. The objective of this study is to examine if various adaptive and maladaptive forms of musical emotion regulation can mediate the potential negative impact of neuroticism
on internalizing symptoms (depression and anxiety symptoms) in youth. A sample of 1,137 undergraduate students (17- to 21-year-olds) filled out an online self-report questionnaire. Results suggest that 4
forms of emotion regulation when listening to music (rumination, discharging negative emotions, avoidant coping, and liking sad music) may respectively mediate some of the putative impact of neuroticism
on internalizing symptoms. These findings were robust (incremental validity), given that general (nonmusical) emotion regulation and coping strategies were statistically controlled. Overall, such findings
integrate 4 complementary research perspectives on neuroticism and musical emotion regulation: deductive (based on mainstream psychology), inductive (rooted in music psychology), musical coping with
stress, and negative trait-congruence (liking sad music reflects trait negative emotionality). In sum, this
study sheds new light on the possibility that neuroticism is a personality trait primarily associated with
problematic musical emotion regulation strategies that are in turn tied with symptoms of depression and
anxiety in youth.
Keywords: music, neuroticism, emotion regulation, coping, mental health
(r = .10 is small, r = .20 is typical, and r = .30 is relatively large;
Gignac & Szodorai, 2016). This relationship may be consequential
both for the quality and quantity of the emotional development of
young people. First, in terms of quality, neuroticism is a potent
and persistent emotional risk factor (Barlow et al., 2014; Lahey,
2009) that may alter musical emotion regulation into excessive
and maladaptive forms that could possibly affect mental health
(Miranda, 2019a, 2019b; Miranda & Blais-Rochette, 2020). Second, in terms of quantity, given that musical emotion regulation is
very common among young people (Baltazar & Saarikallio, 2016;
Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2007), maladaptive iterations of
musical emotion regulation could gradually become ubiquitous in
their daily life.
However, the various emotional mediators that could bind neuroticism, musical emotion regulation, and mental health are not
well understood. There is nonetheless some agreement that musical emotion regulation strategies can be either adaptive or maladaptive (Chin & Rickard, 2014; Miranda & Claes, 2009; Saarikallio
et al., 2015; Thomson et al., 2014). Unfortunately, most studies
have not shed light on how neuroticism may be associated with
different forms of musical emotion regulation and how these different forms may distinctively impact mental health (Miranda,
2020; Miranda & Blais-Rochette, 2020). Overall, as a guiding
principle, Miranda and Blais-Rochette (2020) theorized that
although people who are higher in neuroticism may routinely
engage in musical emotion regulation as a “self-help strategy” to
manage their excess of negative emotions, their strategy may
backfire given that neuroticism usually leads to distorting emotion
Recent personality research has generated consistent empirical
support in favor of the idea that trait negative emotionality—traditionally known as neuroticism in the Big Five—is associated with
musical emotion regulation in adolescence and emerging adulthood (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2007; Miranda, 2019a,
2019b; Miranda & Blais-Rochette, 2020; Miranda et al., 2010).
Current findings in this area of research may thereby imply that
young people who have a more emotionally negative nature tend
to listen to music to manage their emotions on a daily basis.
In a recent meta-analysis, Miranda and Blais-Rochette (2020)
estimated that the relationship between neuroticism and musical
emotion regulation was small-to-medium (r = .22, 95% confidence
interval [CI: .17, .27], k = 13) in terms of effect size (Cohen,
1992). This effect size is still of appreciable magnitude, given that
it falls in the range of a typical effect size for personality research
This article was published Online First July 1, 2021.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3612-9397
Dave Miranda
Dave Miranda received his PhD in psychology at Université de Montréal
(Canada) in 2007. His research interests in music psychology pertain to
personality, culture, and mental health in youth.
This article is an original work. It has not been previously presented at a
scientific conference, and it has not been posted elsewhere.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dave
Miranda, School of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of
Ottawa, 136 Jean-Jacques Lussier (Vanier Hall), Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5,
Canada. Email: [email protected]
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regulation in ways that are deleterious for mental health. Therefore, in this study, I examine if various adaptive and maladaptive
forms of musical emotion regulation can mediate the potentially
negative impact of neuroticism on internalizing symptoms
(depression and anxiety) in young university students (17- to 21year-olds).
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Neuroticism, Emotion Regulation, and Mental Health
Neuroticism is part of the five factor model (Big Five), in which
five broad traits (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
neuroticism, and openness) organize, describe, and explain fundamental, relatively stable, and partially heritable individual differences in personality (John et al., 2008; Vukasovic & Bratko,
2015). Neuroticism is usually defined in two complementary
ways: (a) through descriptive prototypes of specific traits that
belong to the broad trait of neuroticism (b) or through functional
mechanisms explaining how neuroticism works as a trait of negative emotionality (Miranda, 2020).
From a descriptive angle, for example, neuroticism can be seen
as the degree to which people perceive certain emotional traits
(e.g., anxious, depressed, emotionally volatile) to be representative
of them in general (John et al., 2008; Soto & John, 2017). From a
functional angle, for instance, a person with higher neuroticism
can be viewed as someone with an emotional-dispositional system
that has greater sensibility to uncertainty, threats, and punishments, which translates into intensifying the negative emotional
response to challenges, stressors, difficulties, and failures (Barlow
et al., 2014; Caspi et al., 2005; DeYoung, 2015; Lahey, 2009).
Indeed, neuroticism fosters a vigilant/avoidant mode that creates
mental noise about the past (rumination), the future (worry), and
the present (intrusive thoughts; Klein & Robinson, 2019); promotes a negative bias when interpreting emotional information
(Chan et al., 2007); encourages avoidance of ambiguous stimuli
(Lommen et al., 2010); increases reactivity to stressors (Bolger &
Schilling, 1991); and generates an overproduction of negative
emotions when something is appraised negatively (Hervas & Vazquez, 2011). Recent advances in neuroscience suggest that a biological underpinning of neuroticism might actually be altered
neurocircuitry between the ventral-medial prefrontal cortex (cognitive control) and the amygdala (emotional reaction), which may
denote highly-solicited and/or ineffective emotion regulation (Silverman et al., 2019). In sum, neuroticism involves emotion regulation problems.
Neuroticism may represent a trait-dispositional risk factor that
can predict the development of diverse mental health issues, especially those regarding internalizing symptoms that involve emotional problems like depression and anxiety (Barlow et al., 2014;
Barrocas & Hankin, 2011; Jeronimus et al., 2016; Kendler et al.,
2006; Klein et al., 2011; Kotov et al., 2010; Lahey, 2009). As
such, a conceivable assumption is that emotion regulation problems may explain some of the reason why neuroticism may lead to
developing depression and anxiety symptoms. From this assumption, one can posit a mediation model in which neuroticism may
dispose to use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies that then
increase internalizing symptoms. This is compatible with recent
theorizing that musical emotion regulation may mediate some of
the relations between personality traits (e.g., neuroticism) and
wellbeing (Miranda, 2019a). In fact, there is also some empirical
support for such mediation model but with nonmusical emotion
regulation in general. First, studies support the first part of this
mediation model, from neuroticism to emotion regulation. Indeed,
neuroticism is negatively linked with adaptive (e.g., reappraisal,
problem-solving, mindfulness) and positively linked with maladaptive (e.g., rumination, avoidance, suppression, worry) emotion
regulation strategies (Baranczuk, 2019).1 Second, studies also
support the second part of this mediation model, from emotion
regulation to internalizing symptoms. Indeed, adaptive (e.g., problem-solving, reappraisal, acceptance) and maladaptive (e.g., rumination, avoidance, suppression) emotion regulation strategies can
also be respectively related to less and more symptoms of depression and anxiety (Aldao et al., 2010; Schäfer et al., 2017).2 Lastly,
studies also support the full mediation model. Indeed, emotion regulation strategies (e.g., rumination) have been found to mediate
some of the links from neuroticism to depression and anxiety
(Muris et al., 2005; Roelofs et al., 2008).
Musical Emotion Regulation
It is well-established that emotion regulation pertains to selfcontrol capabilities that enable the monitoring, evaluation, and
tun…
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