the files are attached below. Middle Childhood: Psychosocial Development The Developing Person Thro

the files are attached below.

Middle Childhood:
Psychosocial Development

The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Eleventh Edition

Chapter 13

WHAT WILL YOU KNOW?

What helps some children thrive in a difficult family, school, or neighborhood?

Should parents marry, risking divorce, or not marry, and thus avoid divorce?

What can be done to stop a bully?

Why would children lie to adults to protect a friend?

The Nature of the Child (part 1)

The middle childhood years are characterized by steady growth, brain maturation, and intellectual advances. Children become more capable and independent and social. Negotiation and compromise become important.

Self-Concept

Social comparison

Tendency to assess oneself against those of other people, especially peers

Contributes to development of realistic, culturally viable self value

Peer relationships

Crucial during middle childhood

Correlated with self-concept

Tendency to assess one’s abilities, achievements, social status, and other attributes by measuring them against those of other people, especially one’s peers

The Nature of the School-Age Children

Erikson’s insights:

Industry versus inferiority

Characterized by tension between productivity and incompetence

Proposes children judge themselves as competent or incompetent, productive or useless, winners or losers

Self-pride dependent on others’ view

The Nature of the Child (part 2)

Freud: Latency

Emotional drives are quiet, and unconscious sexual conflicts are submerged.

Children acquire cognitive skills and assimilate cultural values by expanding their world to include teachers, neighbors, peers, club leaders, and coaches.

Sexual energy is channeled into social concerns

The Nature of the Child (part 3)

Self-concept

Contains ideas about self that include intelligence, personality, abilities, gender, and ethnic background

Gradually becomes more realistic, specific, and logical

Is dependent on social comparison

Becomes less optimistic as influences from peer and society are incorporated.

Potential for psychological growth is evident in the advance a child makes in self-concept in middle childhood. However, advance is not automatic—family, culture, and social context affect advancement.

Is dependent on social comparison:

awareness of social prejudices and gender discrimination

increase in materialism

A Question

What would you list as signs of psychosocial maturation over the middle childhood years?

Children responsibly perform specific chores.

Children make decisions about a weekly allowance.

Children can tell time, and they have set times for various activities.

Children have homework, including some assignments over several days.

Children are less often punished than when they were younger.

Children try to conform to peers in clothes, language, and so on.

Children voice preferences about their after-school care, lessons, and activities.

Children are responsible for younger children, pets, and, in some places, work.

Children strive for independence from parents.

Of course, culture is crucial. For example, giving a child an allowance has been typical for middle-class families in developed nations since about 1960. It was rare, or completely absent, in earlier times and other places.

Resilience

Involves capacity to adapt well to significant adversity and to overcome serious stress

Suggests differential sensitivity

Important components

Resilience is dynamic.

Resilience is a positive adaptation to stress.

Adversity must be significant.

Resilience is dynamic. A person may be resilient at some periods but not at others.

Resilience is a positive adaptation to stress. If rejection by a parent leads a child to establish a closer relationship with another adult, that child is resilient.

Adversity must be significant. Resilient children overcome conditions that overwhelm many of their peers.

Accumulated stresses over time, including minor ones, are more devastating than an isolated major stress.

Dominant Ideas About Resilience,
1965–2017

1965: All children have same needs for healthy development.

1985: Factors beyond the family, both in the child and in the community, can harm children.

2005: Focus on strengths, not risks

2012: Genes, family structures, and cultural practices can be either strengths or weaknesses.

2015: Communities are responsible for child resilience.

See Table 13.2 for additional information

1965: All children have the same needs for healthy development.

1985: Factors beyond the family, both in the child (low birthweight, prenatal alcohol exposure, aggressive temperament) and in the community (poverty, violence), can harm children.

2005: Focus on strengths, not risks. Assets in child (intelligence, personality), family (secure attachment, warmth), community (schools, after-school programs), and nation (income support, health care) are crucial.

2012: Genes, family structures, and cultural practices can be either strengths or weaknesses. Differential sensitivity means identical stressors can benefit one child and harm another.

2015: Communities are responsible for child resilience. Not every child needs help, but every community needs to encourage healthy child development.

Dominant Ideas About Resilience—Today

2017

Resilience is seen more broadly as a characteristic of mothers and communities.

Some are quite resilient, which fosters resilience in children.

See Table 13.1 for additional information.

Current thinking about resilience, with insights from dynamic-systems theory, emphasizes that no one is impervious to past history or current context, and many suffer lifelong harm from early maltreatment. But some weather early storms and a few not only survive but come out stronger.

Sri Lanka children were exposed to war, a tsunami, poverty, deaths of relatives, and relocation.

Accumulated stresses increased pathology and decreased academic achievement

Sierra Leone child soldiers witnessed and often participated in murder, rape, and other traumas.

Recovery was more likely when children were in middle childhood when war occurred; when at least one caregiver survived; when community rejection did not occur; and when daily routine was restored.

U.S. homeless children living in temporary shelters showed delays in every measure of development.

Negative outcomes were buffered by supportive parent who provided affection, hope, and stable routines.

Cumulative Stress

Repeated stresses, daily hassles, and multiple traumatic experiences may challenge resilience.

Social context is crucial.

Family as protective buffer

Committed caregiver, especially mother

Daily routine

Repeated stress:

makes resilience difficult

is more devastating than isolated major stress

includes such things as frequent moves, changes in caregivers, disruption of schooling

Cognitive Coping (part 1)

Coping measures reduce impact of repeated stress.

Interpretation of family situation and other circumstances

Development of friends, activities, and skills

Participation in school success and after-school activities

Involvement in community, church, and other programs

Child’s interpretation of a family situation (poverty, divorce, etc.) impacts how that situation affects him or her.

Cognitive Coping (part 2)

Social support and religious faith

Network of supportive relatives is a better buffer than having only one close parent.

Grandparents, teachers, unrelated adults, peers, and pets can lower stress.

Use of religion, which often provides support via adults from the same faith group, has been found to be helpful.

Same Situation, Far Apart: Praying Hands

Differences, even in their clothes and hand positions, are obvious between the Northern Indian girls entering their Hindu school and the West African boy in a Christian church.

But underlying similarities are more important. In every culture, many 8-year-olds are more devout than their elders.

Cognitive Coping (part 3)

Parentification

Occurs when a child acts more like a parent than a child

Happens if the actual parents do not act as caregivers, making a child feel responsible for the entire family

Has effect related to child interpretation of what they do

Families and Children

Shared and nonshared environments

Genes affect half or more of the variance for almost every trait.

Influence of shared environment (e.g., children raised by the same parents in the same home) shrinks with age

Effect of nonshared environment (e.g., friends or schools) increases

Thinking about any family—even a happy, wealthy family like this one—makes it apparent that each child’s family experiences differ.

For instance, would you expect the 5-year-old boy to be treated the same way as his two older sisters?

And how about each child’s feelings toward the parents?

Even though the 12-year-olds are twins, one may favor her mother while the other favors her father.

Family Function and Family Structure

Family structure

Legal and genetic relationships among relatives living in the same home and includes nuclear family, extended family, stepfamily, and others

Family function

Way a family works to meet the needs of its members

Families provide basic material necessities to encourage learning, to help development of self-respect, to nurture friendships, and to foster harmony and stability.

Needs of Children in Middle Childhood

Families help children

Provide basic physical necessities

Encourage learning

Help development of self-respect

Nurture friendships

Foster harmony and stability

Continuity and Change

No family always functions perfectly

Children worldwide fare better in families than in other institutions

School-agers value continuity and having fathers at home

Stability challenges occur in military families

A VIEW FROM SCIENCE
Effects of Genes and Environment

Children raised in the same households by the same parents do not necessarily share the same experiences or home environment.

Changes in the family affect every family member differently, depending on age and/or gender.

Most parents respond to each of their children differently.

Diversity of Family Structures (part 1)

Two-Parent Families

Nuclear family

Stepparent family

Adoptive family

Grandparents alone

Two same-sex parents

Single-Parent Families

Single mother-never married

Single mother-divorced, separated, widowed

Single father

Grandparent alone

See Table 13.3 for additional information.

Diversity of Family Structures (part 2)

More than two-adult families

Extended family

Polygamous family

These may also be included as two-parent or single-parent family categories.

See Table 13.3 for additional information.

Divorce (part 1)

How can these facts be interpreted?

United States leads world in rates of marriage, divorce, and remarriage.

Single, cohabiting, and stepparents sometimes provide good care for their children, but children usually do best living with married parents.

Divorce is a process, not a decree.

Custody disputes and outcomes frequently harm children.

Divorce (part 2)

Insight

Both marriage and personal freedom are idolized. This creates a cultural conflict.

A shrinking middle class impacts the ability to find jobs and support families. This creates a strain on marriages and families.

Some of the greatest effects of divorce come from frequent changes in residence, school, and family members.

Parenting style (e.g., discipline, too much or too little child responsibility, conflict, secrets)

Connecting Family Structure and Function
(part 1)

Two-parent families

Generally function best

Better educational, social, cognitive, and behavioral child outcomes

Mate selection effects and parental alliance

Positive effects beyond childhood

Some reported benefits are correlates

Structure influences but does not determine function. Which structures make it more likely that the five family functions (necessities, learning, self-respect, friendship, harmony/stability) will occur?

Connecting Family Structure and Function
(part 2)

Adoptive and same-sex parent families

Typically function well; often better than average nuclear families

Vary tremendously in ability to meet child needs

Stepfamilies

Some function well; positive relationships more easily formed with children under 2; more difficult with teenagers

Solid parental alliance more difficult to form

Child loyalty to parents often undermined by disputes

Connecting Family Structure and Function
(part 3)

Grandparent family (skipped-generation family)

Generally lower income, more health problems, less stability

Often involve grandchildren with health or behavioral problems who are less likely to succeed in school

Receive fewer services for children with special needs

Connecting Family Structure and Function
(part 4)

Single-parent families

On average, structure functions less well for children

Lower income and stability

Stress from multiple roles

Benefit from community support

More common in United States than in many nations

No type of two-parent family guarantees good functioning, but the fact that two adults are involved nudge it in the right direction.

Family Challenges (part 1)

Two factors increase the likelihood of dysfunction in every structure, ethnic group, and nation:

Low income or poverty

High conflict

Many families experience both: Financial stress increases conflict and vice versa.

Wealth and Poverty

Family income correlates with function and structure.

Low-SES contribute to increased family risk factors.

Any risk factor damages only if it increased parental stress and adult hostility (family-stress model)

Family Challenges (part 2)

Conflict

Family conflict harms children, especially when adults fight about child rearing.

Fights are more common in stepfamilies, divorced families, and extended families.

Although genes have some effect, conflict itself is the main influence on a child’s well-being.

The Peer Group

Child culture

Particular habits, styles, and values that reflect the set of rules and rituals that characterize children as distinct from adult society

Fashion

Appearance

Peer culture

Attitudes

Independence from adults

Passed down to younger children from slightly older ones

The culture of children is not always benign.

Boys in middle childhood are happiest playing outside with equipment designed for work. This wheelbarrow is perfect, especially because at any moment the pusher might tip it.

Friendship and Social Acceptance (part 1)

Friendships

In middle childhood, children value personal friendship more than peer acceptance.

Friendships lead to psychosocial growth and provide a buffer against psychopathology.

Gender differences:

Girls talk more and share secrets.

Boys play more active games.

Friendship and Social Acceptance (part 2)

Older children

Demand more of their friends

Change friends less often

Become more upset when a friendship ends

Find it harder to make new friends

Seek friends who share their interests and values

Popular and Unpopular Children

Popular children in the United States

Kind, trustworthy, cooperative

Athletic, cool, dominant, arrogant, aggressive (around fifth grade)

Unpopular children in the United States

Neglected

Aggressive-rejected

Withdrawn-rejected

Universally, children seek friends.

Culture and cohort affect popularity.

Neglected children:

neglected by peers, but not actively rejected

ignored, but not shunned

do not enjoy school; but psychologically unharmed

Aggressive-rejected children:

disliked by peers because of antagonistic, confrontational behavior

Withdrawn-rejected children:

disliked by peers because of their timid, withdrawn, and anxious behavior

Bullies and Victims

Bullying

Repeated, systematic efforts to inflict harm through physical, verbal, or social attack on a weaker person

Bully-victim

Someone who attacks others and who is attacked as well

Also called a provocative victim because he or she does things that elicit bullying, such as stealing a bully’s pencil

Types of Bullying

Physical (hitting, pinching, or kicking)

Verbal (teasing, taunting, or name-calling)

Relational (destroying peer acceptance and friendship)

Cyberbullying (using electronic means to harm another)

Causes and Consequences of Bullying

Causes

Genetic predisposition or brain abnormality

Parenting/caregiving environment

Age, peers

Consequences

Impaired social understanding, lower school achievement, relationship difficulties

Depression

Can Bullying Be Stopped?

The whole school community must be involved, not just the identified bullies.

Intervention is more effective in the earlier grades.

Evaluation of results is critical.

Research finds that children are better at stopping bullying than adults are, because bystanders are pivotal. Since bullies tend to be low on empathy, they need peers to teach them that their actions are not admired (many bullies believe people admire their aggression).

Children’s Moral Values (part 1)

Forces that drive emerging interest in moral issues include:

Child culture

Personal experience

Empathy

Children show a variety of skills in:

Making moral judgments

Differentiating universal principles from conventional norms

Becoming more socially perceptive

Children’s Moral Values (part 2)

Kohlberg’s levels of moral thought

Stages of morality stem from three levels of moral reasoning with two stages at each level

Preconventional moral reasoning: Emphasizes rewards and punishments

Conventional moral reasoning: Emphasizes social rules

Postconventional moral reasoning: Emphasizes moral principles

See Table 13.4 for additional information.

Kohlberg judged moral development not by the answers but by the reasons for the answers.

Children’s Moral Values (part 3)

Criticisms of Kohlberg

Pros

Child use of intellectual abilities to justify moral actions was correct.

Cons

Culture and gender differences are ignored.

Differences between child and adult morality are not addressed.

Kohlberg’s levels could be labeled personal (preconventional), communal (conventional), and worldwide (postconventional).

What Children Value

Prosocial values among 6- to 11-year-olds

Care for close family members

Cooperate with other children

Do not hurt anyone intentionally

Adult versus peer values

Protect your friends

Do not tell adults what is happening

Conform to peer standards of dress, talk, and behavior

As children become more aware of themselves and others in middle childhood, they realize that one person’s values may conflict with another’s. Concrete operational cognition, which gives children the ability to understand and use logic, propels them to think about morality and try to behave ethically.

Developing Moral Values

Throughout middle childhood, moral judgment becomes more comprehensive.

Psychological and physical harm, as well as intentions and consequences taken into account

Peer effects on morality (Piaget)

Transition from advocating for retribution to restitution between ages of 8 and 10 years

Benefits of Time and Talking

Conversation on a topic may stimulate a process of individual reflection that triggers developmental advances. Raising moral issues and letting children discuss them advances morality.

The graph on the left shows that most children, immediately after their initial punitive response, became even more likely to seek punishment rather than to repair damage. However, after some time and reflection, they affirmed the response Piaget considered more mature. The graph on the right indicates that children who had talked about the broken window example moved toward restorative justice even in examples they had not heard before, which was not true for those who had not talked about the first story.

Adolescence:
Biosocial Development

The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Eleventh Edition

Chapter 14

WHAT WILL YOU KNOW?

How can you predict when puberty will begin for a particular child?

Why do some teenagers avoid eating for days, even months?

What makes teenage sex a problem instead of a joy?

Puberty Begins

Puberty in the United States

Time between the first onrush of hormones and full adult physical development

Usually starts between 8 and 14 years; marked variation

Maturation delays start; stress advances it

Puberty

Menarche

Girl’s first menstrual period, signaling that she has begun ovulation

Pregnancy is biologically possible, but ovulation and menstruation often irregular for years after menarche.

Spermarche

Boy’s first ejaculation of sperm

Erections can occur as early as infancy, but ejaculation signals sperm production.

Puberty: Unseen Beginnings (part 1)

The entire process of puberty begins with an invisible event—a marked increase in hormones.

Hormone

Organic chemical substance that is produced by one body tissue and conveyed via the bloodstream to another to affect some physiological function

HPA (hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal) axis

Sequence of a chain reaction of hormone production, originating in the hypothalamus and moving to the pituitary and then to the adrenal glands

Puberty: Unseen Beginnings (part 2)

The pituitary produces hormones that stimulate the adrenal glands.

Pituitary

Gland in the brain that responds to a signal from the hypothalamus by producing many hormones, including those that regulate growth and control other glands, among them the adrenal and sex glands

Adrenal glands

Two glands, located above the kidneys, that produce hormones including the “stress hormones” epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine

Biological Sequence of Puberty

Puberty begins with a hormonal signal from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland, both deep within the brain. The pituitary, in turn, sends a hormonal message through the bloodstream to the adrenal glands and the gonads to produce more hormones.

Sex Hormones (part 1)

Gonads

Paired sex glands (ovaries in females, testicles in males)

Gonads produce hormones and gametes.

HPG (hypothalamus–pituitary–gonad) axis

Sequence of hormone production that originates in the hypothalamus, moves to the pituitary, and then to the gonads

Sex Hormones (part 2)

GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone)

Hormones that causes gonads to enlarge and increase production (estradiol in girls; testosterone in boys)

Estradiol

Sex hormone, considered the chief estrogen

Females produce more estradiol than males do.

Testosterone

Sex hormone, the best known of the androgens (male hormones).

Males secrete far greater amounts of testosterone than females do.

Sex Hormones (part 3)

Hormonal increase may precipitate psychopathology

Peak time in both genders for disorder emergence.

Males: Schizophrenia twice more likely in males

Females: Severe depression twice more likely in females

Psychotherapy during adolescence is often successful.

Bodies, brains, and behavior all affect one another.

Body Rhythms

Hypothalamus and the pituitary regulate the hormones that affect the biorhythms of stress, appetite, sleep.

In puberty, a phase delay in circadian sleep-wake cycles (circadian rhythm) may occur,

Eveningness puts adolescents at risk for antisocial activities and sleep deprivation,

Blue spectrum lights from electronic devices may have strong effects on human circadian system by interfering with nighttime sleepiness.

The phase delay at puberty makes many teens wide awake and hungry at midnight but half asleep, with no appetite or energy, all morning.

Teachers everywhere complain that students don’t remember what they were taught. Maybe schedules, not daydreaming, are to blame.

Sleepyheads

Three of every four high school seniors are sleep deprived.

Even if they go to sleep at midnight, as many do, they must get up before 8, as almost all do. Then all day they are tired

Sleep deprivation and irregular sleep schedules increase several proven dangers, including insomnia, nightmares, mood disorders (depression, conduct disorder, anxiety), and falling asleep while driving. Adolescents are particularly vulnerable to all of these, and sleepiness makes it worse (see Figure 14. 2 ). In addition, sleepy students do not learn as well as well-rested ones.

Getting to School on Time!

Sleep-deprived teenagers nod off in class and sometimes use drugs to stay awake or go to sleep.

In August 2014, the American Academy of Pediatrics concluded that high school should not begin until 8:30 a.m. or 9 a.m. because adolescent sleep deprivation causes a cascade of intellectual and behavioral problems

Do you agree? Disagree? Why?

For many adolescents, early sleep and early rising are almost impossible.

Brain Growth

Different parts of the brain grow at

different rates.

The limbic system (fear, emotional impulses) matures before the prefrontal cortex (planning ahead, emotional regulation).

Instinctual and emotional areas develop before the reflective ones do.

Brain scans confirm that emotional control, revealed by fMRI studies, is not fully developed until adulthood, because the prefrontal cortex is limited in connections and engagement.

Same People, But Not the Same Brain

These brain scans are part of a longitudinal study that repeatedly compares the proportion of gray matter from childhood through adolescence. Gray matter is reduced as white matter increases, in part because pruning during the teen years (the last two pairs of images here) allows intellectual connections to build. As the authors of one study that included this chart explain, teenagers may “look like an adult, but cognitively they are not there yet” (K. Powell, 2006, p. 865).

Benefits of Adolescent Brain Development

There are benefits as well as hazards in the adolescent brain.

Increased myelination and slower inhibition make reactions lightning fast.

The brain’s reward areas activate positive neurotransmitters, and teenagers become happier.

Questioning assumptions can raise important issues.

Risk taking often facilitates learning.

Synaptic growth enhances moral development.

Genes and Gender (part 1)

About two-thirds of the variation in age of puberty is genetic.

Genes on the sex chromosomes have a marked effect on age of puberty.

Girls generally develop ahead of boys.

The female height spurt occurs before menarche, whereas for boys the increase in height is relatively late, after spermarche.

On average, African Americans reach puberty about seven months before European or Hispanic Americans; Chinese Americans average several months later.

The female height spurt occurs before menarche, whereas for boys the increase in height is relatively late, after spermarche.

Genes and Gender (part 2)

One of the best qualities of adolescents is that they identify more with their generation than their ethnic group.

Children who have a relatively large proportion of body fat experience puberty sooner than do their thin contemporaries.
Globally urban children are more often overfed and underexercised than rural children

Do the expressions of these 13-year-olds convey respect or hostility? Impossible to be sure, but given that they are both about mid-puberty (face shape, height, shoulder size), and both in the same school, they may become friends.

If a child’s genes, gender, body fat, and stress level are known, some prediction is possible.

Most girls must weigh at least 100 pounds before experiencing first period

Body Fat and Chemicals (part 1)

Secular trend

Data on puberty over the centuries that reveals a dramatic example of a long-term statistical increase or decrease.

Each generation has experienced puberty a few weeks earlier and has grown a centimeter or so taller, than did the preceding one.

Secular trend has stopped in developed nations.

Do you know why?

Some research finds, however, that puberty is delayed, not accelerated, in boys who were exposed to phthalates and bisphenol A when they were in the womb (Ferguson et al., 2014) or who experience heavy doses of pesticides in boyhood.

Body Fat and Chemicals (part 2)

Chemicals

Research on the effects on humans of hormones and other chemicals, whether natural or artificial, is complex.

Female system is especially sensitive to leptin and other factors in the environment.

Leptin

Affects appetite and is believed to be involved in the onset of puberty

Increases during childhood and peaks at around age 12

Evokes uncertainty about its effects

In both sexes, chronic malnutrition delays puberty.

Leptin: a hormone that affects appetite and is believed to affect the onset of puberty. Leptin levels increase during childhood and peak at around age 12.

Stress and Puberty

Several longitudinal studies show a direct link between stress and puberty.

Harsh parenting increases cortisol levels, which affects puberty thus increasing sexual risk, but not other risks (Belsky and colleagues).

Evolutionary theorists suggest there was a shaping of the genome over millennia.

Affects children who are genetically sensitive to context

Makes reproduction more difficult in adulthood and hastens hormonal onset of puberty

Too Early, Too Late

Girls

Early-maturing girls tend to have lower self-esteem, more depression, and poorer body image than later-maturing girls.

Early-maturing girls may be attracted to older boyfriends and enter into abusive relationships more often than other girls.

Boys

Early-maturing boys are more aggressive, law-breaking, and alcohol-abusing than later-maturing boys.

Slow developing boys tend to be more anxious, depressed, and afraid of sex.

Size and maturation are important for many adolescents in every nation.

Ethnic Differences

The effects of early puberty vary not only by sex, but also by ethnicity and culture.

In contrast to European Americans, early-maturing African American girls were not depressed, but early-maturing African American boys were.

European research finds that Swedish early-maturing girls were likely to encounter problems with boys and early drug abuse, but similar Slovak girls were not.

Early maturing Mexican American boys were likely to experience trouble with the police and with other boys if they lived in neighborhoods with relatively few Mexican-Americans, but not if they lived in ethnic enclaves.

None of these trends is true for all children, of course, as ethnicity is only one influence on development. However, all three studies confirm that contextual factors interact with biological ones, and both have significant implications for individuals. Relationships with peers and parents make off-time puberty better or worse.

Growing Bigger and Stronger (part 1)

Growth spurt

“Spurt” is a relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty.

Each body part increases in size on a schedule; growth is not always symmetrical.

Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso.

Growing Bigger and Stronger (part 2)

Sequence: Weight, height, muscles

Height spurt follows weight spurt, then a year or two later a muscle spurt occurs.

Arm muscles develop more in boys; other muscles are gender-neutral.

Growing Bigger and Stronger (part 3)

Little difference

Both sexes develop longer and stronger legs during puberty.

Growing Bigger and Stronger (part 4)

Organ growth

Lungs triple in weight; consequently, adolescents breathe more deeply and slowly.

Heart doubles in size and the heartbeat slows, decreasing the pulse rate while increasing blood pressure.

Only lymphoid system decreases in size.

Only lymphoid system (which includes the tonsils and adenoids), decreases in size. Teenagers are less susceptible to respiratory ailments.

Growing Bigger and Stronger (part 5)

Skin and hair

Skin becomes oilier, sweatier, and more prone to acne.

Hair on the head and limbs becomes coarser and darker.

New hair grows under arms, on the face, and over sex organs.

In many ways, hair is more than a growth characteristic; it becomes a display of sexuality.

Growth and Nutrition

Diet deficiencies

In 2015, only 16 percent of U.S. high school seniors ate recommended three or more daily vegetable servings.

Deficiencies of iron, calcium, zinc, and other minerals are cause for concern, since these are needed for bone and muscle growth.

Nutritional deficiencies result from the food choices that young adolescents are allowed, even enticed, to make.

Deficiencies of iron, calcium, zinc, and other minerals may be even more problematic during adolescence than vitamin deficiencies, since minerals are needed for bone and muscle growth.

Choices Made

Nutritional deficiencies result from the food choices that young adolescents are enticed to make.

These choices are influenced by:

Fast-food establishments

Price of healthy versus unhealthy choices

School-based vending machines

Diet Worldwide: adolescent obesity is increasing. Parental responses differ, from indifference to major focus. For some U.S. parents, the response is to spend thousands of dollars trying to change their children, as is the case for the parents of these girls, eating breakfast at Wellspring, a California boarding school for overweight teenagers that costs $6,250 a month. Every day, these girls exercise more than 10,000 steps (tracked with a pedometer) and eat less than 20 grams of fat (normal is more than 60 grams).

Body Image

Anxiety about body image contributes to poor nutrition among teenagers.

Focus on and exaggeration of imperfections

Few adolescents are happy with their bodies.

Discrepancy between teen body and bodies portrayed online and in teen-marketed media

Two-thirds of U.S. high school girls are trying to lose weight, one-third think they are overweight, and only one-sixth are actually overweight or obese.

Dissatisfaction with body image is not only depressing but also can be dangerous. Many teenagers eat erratically and take drugs to change their bodies. Teenagers try new diets, go without food for 24 hours (as did 19 percent of U.S. high school girls in one typical month), or take diet drugs (6.6 percent).

Eating Disorders

Anorexia nervosa

Eating disorder characterized by self-starvation

Affected individuals voluntarily undereat and often over exercise, depriving their vital organs of nutrition; anorexia can be fatal.

Bulimia nervosa

Eating disorder characterized by binge eating and subsequent purging, usually by induced vomiting and/or use of laxatives

Binge-eating disorder

The DSM-5 introduced binge-eating disorder as a diagnostic category, in part to recognize that bingeing is sometimes associated with anorexia.

Elize, seen here sitting in a café in France, believes that she developed anorexia after she went on an extreme diet. Success with that diet led her to think that even less food would be better.

According to the DSM-5, anorexia is officially diagnosed when three symptoms are evident:

significantly low body weight for developmental stage (BMI of 17 or lower)

intense fear of weight gain

disturbed body perception and denial of the problem

According to the DSM-5, bulimia is officially diagnosed when three symptoms are evident:

bingeing and purging at least once a week for three months

uncontrollable urges to overeat

sense of self inordinately tied to body shape and weight

Life-Span Causes and Consequences

Origins of disordered eating

Cultural image

Stress

Puberty

Hormones

Childhood patterns

Family patterns and eating disorder reduction

Healthy eating in childhood

Eating together during childhood

An eating disorder is characterized by severe calorie restriction and the fear of being fat. Affected individuals undereat, or overeat and the purge, depriving their vital organs of nutrition. Anorexia can be fatal

Sexual Maturation

Primary sex characteristics

Parts of the body that are directly involved in reproduction, including the vagina, uterus, ovaries, testicles, and penis

Secondary sex characteristics

Physical traits that are not directly involved in reproduction but that indicate sexual maturity, such as a man’s beard and a woman’s breasts.

Sexual Activity (part 1)

Boys tend to be somewhat more sexually experienced than girls during the high school years.

Since the Youth Risk Behavior Survey began in 1991, the overall trend has been toward equality in rates of sexual activity.

Boys are more influenced by hormones and girls by culture.

Both are influenced by hormones, society, biology, and culture.

Universal experience (rising hormones) that produces another universal experience (growth of primary and secondary sex characteristics) is influenced by cohort, gender, and culture.

Among young European Americans, those girls with lower self-esteem were more likely to engage in sexual intimacy.

Gender gap between rates of sexual activity is narrowing within the United States and among other nations.

Sexual Activity (part 2)

Universal experience that produces another universal experience is influenced by cohort, gender, and culture.

Masturbation is common in both sexes.

Social gender norms are powerful; double standard is less powerful.

Almost equal levels of sexual activity, but boys report higher partner number.

Research finds that the most powerful influence on adolescents’ sexual activity is their close friends, not national or local norms for their gender or their ethnic group.

Sexual Problems in Adolescence

Problems less than in earlier decades

Positive trends

Decreased teen births in every nation

Rise in use of protection

Decrease in teen abortion rate

Sex Too Soon

Hazards related to adolescent sexual activity

Correlation of early sex with depression, drug abuse, and lifelong problems

Absence of partner

Increased complexity and expense related to parenting; fewer family helpers

More common and dangerous STIs

Sexual Abuse

Child sexual abuse

Definition

Most common time

International and national rates

Characteristics

Family members are most likely to abuse.

Victims are often isolated and uninformed.

Almost all adolescent problems, more frequent in abused

Impact of abuse often continues into adulthood

Child sexual abuse: any erotic activity that arouses an adult and excites, shames, or confuses a child, whether or not the victim protests and whether or not genital contact is made.

Sex Trafficking

Adolescent girls are the most common victims.

United States estimates range from 1,000–336,000 victims.

Could this happen to someone in your community?

Sexually Transmitted Infections

Worldwide, sexually active teenagers have higher rates of most common STIs: gonorrhea, genital herpes, and chlamydia.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) has no immediate consequences but increases the risk of serious, life-threatening cancer in both sexes; the rate is reduced by immunization.

Early age of first intercourse, failure to use condoms, hesitancy to report infection all contribute to high U.S. infection rate.

Sexually transmitted infection (STI): a disease spread by sexual contact, including syphilis, gonorrhea, genital herpes, chlamydia, and HIV.

HPV infection can have negative consequences after adolescent years.

Adolescence:
Cognitive Development

The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Eleventh Edition

Chapter 15

WHAT WILL YOU KNOW?

Why are young adolescents often egocentric?

Why does emotion sometimes overwhelm reason?

Is cyberbullying worse than bullying directly?

What kind of school is best for teenagers?

Logic and Self (part 1)

An adolescent’s development moves from egocentrism to abstract logic.

Brain maturation

Intense conversations

Schooling

Moral challenges

Increased independence

Logic and Self (part 2)

Adolescent egocentrism

Characteristic of adolescent thinking that leads young people (ages 10 to 14) to focus on themselves to the exclusion of others

Acute self-consciousness about physical appearance greatest between ages 10 and 14

Egocentrism and obsession with appearance are hallmarks of adolescence, as shown by these high school cheerleaders. Given teenage thinking, it is not surprising that many boys and girls seek stardom, sometimes making competition fierce within teams and between schools. Cooperation and moderation are more difficult.

Because adolescents are focused on their own perspectives, their emotions may not be grounded in reality. For many teenagers, self-esteem and loneliness were closely tied to their perception of how others saw them, not to their actual popularity or acceptance among their peers. Gradually, after about age 15, some gained more perspective and became less depressed.

Logic and Self (part 3)

Egocentrism leads adolescents to interpret everyone else’s behavior as if it were a judgment on them.

Imaginary audience

Other people who, in an adolescent’s egocentric belief, are watching and taking note of his or her appearance, ideas, and behavior

This belief makes many teenagers self-conscious.

The imaginary audience dominates online.

Egocentrism reassessed:

Previous research suggests egocentrism fosters adolescent risk-taking.

Current perspective proposes egocentrism may be protective.

Adolescents who feel psychologically invincible tend to be resilient.

Logic and Self (part 4)

Personal fable

Aspect of adolescent egocentrism characterized by an adolescent’s belief that his or her thoughts, feelings, or experiences are unique, more wonderful or awful than anyone else’s.

Logic and Self (part 5)

Invincibility fable

An adolescent’s egocentric conviction that he or she cannot be overcome or even harmed by anything that might defeat a normal mortal, such as unprotected sex, drug abuse, or high-speed driving

Duck, Duck, Goose: Far more teens are injured in bicycle accidents than hunting ones, because almost all young people ride bicycles and relatively few are hunters. However, especially when no adult is present, young hunters are less likely to wear blaze orange, to attend safety classes, and to be licensed to hunt. Most likely these boys will return home safe, without the duck they seek. However, guns and off-road vehicles are leading causes of death for those under age 18.

Adolescent Cognitive Development (part 1)

Formal operational thought: Piaget

Fourth and final stage of cognitive development

Characterized by more systematic logic and the ability to think about abstract ideas

Examples seen in adolescent math, social science, and science performance

Formal Operational Thought

Dual processing and the brain

Limbic system is activated by puberty; prefrontal cortex matures more gradually.

Cortical regions involving impulse control continue to develop through early adulthood.

Subcortical regions involving sensation seeking develop rapidly after puberty.

Piaget’s Experiments

Piaget and his colleagues devised a number of tasks to assess formal operational thought.

A balancing task required balancing a scale with weights.

Skill in logically solving the task improved with age.

Let’s take a closer look on the next slide.

How to Balance a Scale

Piaget’s balance-scale test of formal reasoning, as it is attempted by (a) 4-year-old, (b) 7-year-old, (c) 10-year-old, and (d) 14-year-old. The key to balancing the scale is to make weight times distance from the center equal on both sides of the center; the realization of that principle requires formal operational thought.

Adolescent Cognitive Development (part 2)

Hypothetical-deductive reasoning

Includes reasoning that uses propositions and possibilities that may not reflect reality

Transforms perceptions

May complicate decision making with immediate, practical questions

Adolescent Cognitive Development (part 3)

Deductive Reasoning

Reasoning from a general statement, premise, or principle, through logical steps, to figure out (deduce) specifics

Sometimes called top-down reasoning

Inductive reasoning

Reasoning from one or more specific experiences or facts to a general conclusion; may be less cognitively advanced than deduction

Sometimes called bottom-up reasoning

Deductive Reasoning and Racism

Children

Reason inductively that some people are prejudiced; argue

Adolescents

Think deductively that racism is society-wide; policy solutions

Two Modes of Thinking:
Intuition Versus Analysis

Variation in thinking at every age

Advanced logic in adolescence is counterbalanced by the increasing power of intuitive, dual-processing thinking

Intuitive thought

Analytic thought

Analytic thought is more difficult than intuition, and it requires examination of comforting, familiar prejudices.

Once people of any age reach an emotional conclusion, they resist changing their minds.

Intuitive thought:

thought that arises from an emotion or a hunch, beyond rational explanation, and is influenced by past experiences and cultural assumptions.

Analytic thought:

thought that results from analysis, such as a systematic ranking of pros and cons, risks and consequences, possibilities and facts. Analytic thought depends on logic and rationality.

Two Modes of Thinking (part 1)

Preferring emotions

Rational judgment is difficult when egocentric emotions dominate.

Experience in decision making and thinking facilitates more accurate use of analysis.

Rewards and reasons

Cortical regions (impulse control and planning) mature through early adulthood.

Subcortical regions (emotional novelty and reward) are most responsive in middle adolescence.

Trends in Impulsivity and Sensation Seeking

Look Before

You Leap

Adolescents become less impulsive as they mature, but they still enjoy the thrill of a new sensation.

Two Modes of Thinking (part 2)

Better thinking

Intuitive decisions are not always best.

With maturity, adolescents gradually balance formal analytic thinking and emotional, experiential thinking.

Quicker, emotional, intuitive thinking is sometimes better than analytic thought.

Digital Natives

With decreasing price, the smartphone has been particularly important at creating digital natives among low-SES adolescents of every ethnic group.

Discrepancies in number and quality of devices still follow SES lines.

Most notable digital divide is now age.

Technology and Cognition (part 1)

Technology may speed up education during the adolescent years.

It also may subvert some kinds of learning or learning processes (e.g., reflection and analytic thinking), especially as this relates to evaluation of what is seen on the screen.

How might this apply to adolescent

evaluation of “fake news”?

Sexual Abuse

Older, unknown, online predators are rare.

Solicited online abuse is less than 1 percent and most often occurs with known person (e.g., friend, coach, clergy, relative.)

Sexual harassment in social networking is common, especially after a breakup.

Discussion is often directed to moral outrage against an individual rather than to sexism and homophobia.

Technology and Cognition (part 2)

For some adolescents, online chat, message boards, gaming, and Internet gambling can become addictive.

Time is taken from needed play, schoolwork, and friendship.

Reviewing research from many nations, one team of researchers report addiction rates from 0 and 26 percent .

The variation was caused more by differing definitions and procedures among researchers than by differences among students in any particular place.

Technology and Cognition (part 3)

Cyberdanger

Adolescent cognitive growth benefits from shared experiences and opinions.

Often communication via the Internet bolsters fragile self-esteem.

Adolescents sometimes share personal information online without thinking about the possible consequences.

Cyberdanger

Cyberbullying

Bullying occurs when one person repeatedly spreads insults or rumors about another by means of social media posts, e-mails, text messages, or cell phone videos.

The anonymity provided by electronic technology often brings out the worst in people.

Cyberbullying may contribute to dangerous, self-destructive behavior of victim.

All forms of bullying are affected by school climate.

Fake Face in Georgia

Technology and Sex

Sexting

As many as 30 percent of adolescents report receiving sexting photos, with marked variation by school, gender, and ethnicity—and often in attitude.

Dangers

Pictures may be forwarded without the naked person’s knowledge.

Senders who deliberately send erotic self-images risk serious depression if the reaction is not what they wished.

Teaching and Learning:
Definitions and Facts

Secondary education

Period after primary education (elementary or grade school) and before tertiary education (college)

Usually occurs from about age 12 to age 18, although the age range varies somewhat by school and by nation

Middle school

School for children in the grades between elementary and high school

Usually begins with grade 5 or 6 and ends with grade 8

Middle School

Increasing behavioral problems

For many middle school students, academic achievement slows down and behavioral problems increase.

Decline in school interest and engagement

Bullying

Change in student-teacher engagement

Coping with Middle School

The first year in any new school (middle school, high school, or college) correlates with increased bullying, decreased achievement, depression, and eating disorders.

Transition from one school to another often affects ability to function and learn.

Changing schools just when the growth spurt is occurring and sexual characteristics are developing is bound to create stress.

Teaching and Learning: Middle School
(part 1)

Finding acclaim

Mismatch between egocentrism and changing school structure

Public acclaim difficult and many students seek peer acceptance

Competitive athletic teams may be too difficult for children with fragile egos

Teaching and Learning: Middle School
(part 2)

Coping with middle school

Blaming others

Entity approach to intelligence (hidden curriculum)

Incremental approach to intelligence

Entity approach to intelligence:

sees ability as innate, a fixed quantity present at birth

reject idea that effort enhances achievement.

Incremental approach to intelligence:

poses intelligence can be directly increased by effort

believe they can master whatever they seek to learn if they pay attention, participate in class, study, and complete their homework.

High School (part 1)

High-stakes test

Involves evaluation that is critical in determining success or failure

Determines if a student will graduate or be promoted

In the United States, one result of pushing almost all high school students to pursue an academic curriculum is that more are prepared for college. Another result is that more students drop out of high school.

High School (part 2)

Problems of middle school continue in high school.

College-bound

Teachers assume students have mastered formal thinking, instead of teaching how to do it.

Increased classes assessed by externally scored exams do not assure college readiness.

In 2016, AP classes were taken by about one-third of all high school graduates, compared to less than one-fifth (19 percent) in 2003.

Opposing Perspective

Testing

Secondary students in the United States take many more tests than they did even a decade ago—including high-stakes tests.

Are high-stakes tests like used in many places in the United States effective or ineffective?

How do you know?

U.S. High School Dropout Rate

Mostly Good News: This depicts wonderful improvements in high school graduation rates, especially among Hispanic youth, who drop out less than half as often as they did 20 years ago. However, since high school graduation is increasingly necessary for lifetime success, even the rates shown here may not have kept pace with the changing needs of the economy. Future health, income, and happiness may be in jeopardy for anyone who drops out.

Alternatives to College

About 30 percent of U.S. high school graduates do not go to college.

Only 37 percent of U.S. students earn a B.S. degree 10 years post high school graduation with a lower rate in large cities.

Vocational education geared toward job preparation is advised by some.

Measuring Practical Cognition (part 1)

PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment)

International test taken by 15-year-olds in 50 nations that is designed to measure problem solving and cognition in daily life

Overall, the U.S. students did worse on the PISA than on the PIRLS or TIMSS.

Measuring Practical Cognition (part 2)

PISA correlates with high achievement.

Overall, all stakeholders value education, and individualized learning approaches are used.

Standards are high and clear.

Teachers and administrators are valued.

Learning is prioritized across the entire system.

Adolescence:
Psychosocial Development

The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Eleventh Edition

Chapter 16

WHAT WILL YOU KNOW?

Why might a teenager be into sports one year and into books the next?

Should parents back off when their teenager disputes every rule, wish, or suggestion they make?

Who are the best, and worst, sources of information about sex?

Should we worry more about teen suicide or juvenile delinquency?

Why are adolescents forbidden to drink and smoke, but adults can do so?

Identity

Psychosocial development during adolescence is often understood as a search for a consistent understanding of oneself.

Erikson:

Identity is the consistent definition of one’s self as a unique individual, in terms of roles, attitudes, beliefs, and aspirations.

Identity versus role confusion

Erikson

Identity versus role confusion

Erikson’s term for the fifth stage of development, in which the person tries to figure out “Who am I?”, but is confused as to which of many possible roles to adopt.

Identity achievement

Erikson’s term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences and future plans.

Role Confusion

Identity Achievement

Erikson’s term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences and future plans.

Role Confusion

A situation in which an adolescent does not seem to know or care what his or her identity is. (Sometimes called identity or role diffusion.)

No Role Confusion: For many youths who cannot afford college, the military offers a temporary identity, complete with haircut, uniform, and comrades.

Identity: Not Yet Achieved

Marcia described and measured four specific ways young people cope with adolescence:

Role confusion (identity diffusion)

Foreclosure

Moratorium

Identity achievement

How do these agree with and

differ from Erikson?

Four Areas of Adolescent Identity Formation
(part 1)

Religious identity

Most adolescents accept broad outlines of parental and cultural religious identity.

Specific religious beliefs may be questioned.

Same Situation, Far Apart: Religious identity

Awesome devotion is characteristic of adolescents, whether devotion is to a sport, a person, a music group, or as shown here a religion. This boy praying on a Kosovo street is part of a dangerous protest against the town’s refusal to allow building another mosque. This girl is at a stadium rally for young Christians in Michigan, declaring her faith for all to see. While adults see differences between the two religions, both teens share not only piety but also twenty-first-century clothing. Her T-shirt is a recent innovation, and on his jersey is Messi 10, for a soccer star born in Argentine.

Four Areas of Adolescent Identity Formation
(part 2)

Political identity

Most adolescents follow parental political traditions.

They tend to be more liberal than their parents.

Fanatical political religious movement participation is rare.

Most adolescents identify with their ethnicity.

Apolitical identity may emerge with weakening parental party identity.

Four Areas of Adolescent Identity Formation
(part 3)

Vocational identity

Vocational identity takes years to establish.

Early vocational identity is no longer relevant.

Part-time work during high school is often related to negative outcomes.

Vocational identity originally meant envisioning oneself as a worker in a particular occupation.

Four Areas of Adolescent Identity Formation
(part 4)

Gender identity

Gender identity that begins with the person’s biological sex and leads to a gender role

It often begins with biological sex but may be questioned

Gender roles changing everywhere

DSM-5: Gender dysphoria

Erikson’s gender intensification no longer fits adolescent development.

A VIEW FROM SCIENCE
Teenagers, Genes, and Drug Use

In experimental parent education intervention study, Brody found differential susceptibility of inherited genes (short 5-HTTLPR versus long %HTTLPR allele).

For youths without genetic risk, usual parenting was no better or worse than parenting that benefited from special classes.

The risk score was a simple one point for each of the following: had drunk alcohol, had smoked marijuana, had had sex. As shown, most of the 11-year-olds had done none of these. By age 14, most had done one (usually had drunk beer or wine) — except for those at genetic risk who did not have the seven-session training. Some of them had done all three, and many had done at least two. As you see, for those youths without genetic risk, the usual parenting was no better or worse than the parenting that benefited from the special classes: The average 14-year-old in either group had tried only one risky behavior. But for those at genetic risk, the special program made a decided difference.

Relationships with Adults (part 1)

Conflicts with parents

Parent–adolescent conflict typically peaks in early adolescence and is more a sign of attachment than of distance.

Bickering

Bickering involves petty, peevish arguing, usually repeated and ongoing, especially between mothers and daughters.

Parent-child relationships usually improve with time.

Relationships with Adults (part 2)

Cultural differences

In cultures that value harmony above all else, adolescent contradiction is not apparent.

Does this mean that adolescent rebellion is a social construction? Why? Why not?

Keys to Family Closeness

Family closeness is more important than family conflict or individual autonomy.

Communication: Do family members talk openly with one another?

Support: Do they rely on one another?

Connectedness: How emotionally close are family members?

Control: Do parents restrict autonomy?

Parental monitoring: Mutual, close parent-child interaction is the most effective monitoring.

Parental monitoring: a parent’s ongoing awareness of what their children is doing, where, and with whom.

Positive: part of a warm, supportive relationship

Negative: cold, overly restrictive, controlling relationship

Peers

Adolescents rely on peers to mitigate and manage developmental challenges.

Healthy, early parental relationships enhance later peer friendships.

Peers are especially helpful in early adolescence or in times of stress.

Peer influence is affected by genes and early experiences.

Peer support is needed by minority and immigrant groups in ethnic identity achievement.

Selecting Friends

Peers can lead one another into trouble and collectively provide deviancy training.

Peer support in which one person shows another how to rebel against authority or social norms

Developmental progression from problem behavior to violent behavior; involves selection and facilitation

Social Networking

Technology usually brings friends together.

Technology users are usually as extroverted and socially connected as other adolescents.

Social networking may be a lifeline for isolated adolescents.

Social or Solitary?

Adults have criticized the Internet for allowing teenagers to keep friends at a distance. By contrast, sitting around an outdoor fire is romanticized as a bonding experience. Which is more accurate here? Are these two girls about to talk about what they are reading?

Romance (part 1)

First love

First romances typically appear in high school and rarely last more than a year.

Girls claim a steady partner more often than boys do.

Not all romances include intercourse.

Breakups and unreciprocated crushes are common.

Adolescents are crushed by rejection and sometimes contemplate revenge or suicide.

U.S. High School Students Who Have Not Had Intercourse (by Grade)

For 30 years, all over the United States youth answer dozens of confidential questions about their behavior. As you can see, about one-fourth of all students have already had sex by the ninth grade, and more than one-third have not yet had sex by their senior year, a group whose ranks have been increasing in recent years. Other research finds that sexual behaviors are influenced by peers, with some groups all sexually experienced by age 14 and others not until age 18 or older.

Romance (part 2)

Same-sex romances

Sexual orientation refers to the direction of a person’s erotic desires.

Currently in North America and western Europe, not just two but many gender roles and sexual orientations are evident.

Variants (via research) reflect culture, cohort, and survey construction.

Some cultures accept and others criminalize LGBTQ youth.

Changing U.S. Attitudes on Same-Sex Marriage (by Birth Year)

Everyone knows that attitudes about same-sex relationships are changing. Less well known is that cohort differences are greater than the shift over the first decade of the twenty-first century.

Sex Education (part 1)

From the media

Internet is a common source for sex information.

Controversial correlation between exposure to media sex and adolescent sexual initiation

From parents

Many parents wait too long, avoid specifics, and are uninformed about adolescent’s relationships.

About 25 percent of adolescents receive any sex education from parents.

Warm, open communication is effective.

Sex Education (part 2)

From peers

Adolescent sexual behavior is strongly influenced by peers, especially when parents are silent, forbidding, or vague.

Only about half of U.S. adolescent couples discuss issues such as pregnancy and STIs, and many are unable to come to a shared conclusion based on accurate information.

Sex Education (part 3)

From educators

U.S. parents want up-to-date sex education for their adolescents.

Timing and content vary by nation, state, and community.

HIV/AIDS crisis prompted sex education for most U.S. adolescents.

Abstinence-only programs are not successful.

Current recommendations suggest sex education should begin earlier and contain more practical information, not just abstinence and male-female marriage.

Sadness and Anger

Self-esteem

Self-esteem declines across children of every ethnicity and gender; higher in boys, African Americans

Universal trends are also apparent; familism is protective for some.

Level of family and peer support is influential.

Major depressive disorder

Deep sadness and hopelessness disrupts all normal, regular activities.

Varied causal factors: biological and psychological stress; genes; rumination with peers

5-HHTLPR

Suicide

Suicidal ideation

Thinking about suicide, usually with some serious emotional and intellectual or cognitive overtones

23 percent seriously thought about suicide.

Parasuicide

Any potentially lethal action against the self that does not result in death

Parasuicide is common; completed suicide is not.

Cluster suicides

Several suicides committed by members of a group within a brief period

Suicidal Ideation and Parasuicide Among U.S. High School Students, 2015

Sad Thoughts

Completed suicide is rare in adolescence, but serious thoughts about killing oneself are frequent. Depression and parasuicide are more common in girls than in boys, but rates are high even in boys. There are three reasons to suspect that the rates for boys are underestimates: Boys tend to be less aware of their emotions than girls are; boys consider it unmanly to try to kill themselves and to fail; and completed suicide is also higher in males than in females.

Parasuicide can be divided according to instances that require medical attention (surgery, pumped stomach, etc.) and those that do not, but any parasuicide is a warning. Among U.S. high school students in 2015, 11.6 percent of the girls and 5.5 percent of the boys attempted suicide in the previous year (MMWR, June 10, 2016). If there is a next time, the person may die.

Delinquency and Defiance (part 1)

Behaviors

Externalizing and internalizing behavior are more closely connected in adolescence than at any other age.

Breaking the law

Prevalence and incidence of criminal activities are more common in adolescence.

About one-fourth of young lawbreakers are caught.

Most adolescents obey the law.

Delinquency and Defiance (part 2)

An angry adolescent can be both depressed and delinquent because externalizing and internalizing behavior are closely connected during these years.

Some psychologists suggest that adolescent rebellion is a social construction, an idea created and endorsed by many Western adults but not expected or usual in Asian nations.

This may explain suicide in jail: Teenagers jailed for assault (externalizing) are higher suicide risks (internalizing) than adult prisoners.

Breaking the Law

Prevalence and incidence of criminal actions are higher during adolescence.

30 percent of African American males and 22 percent of European American males arrested at least once before age 18.

Most adolescents self-report law-breaking at least once before age 20.

Two kinds of teenage lawbreakers

Adolescent-limited offenders

Life-course-persistent offenders

Arrest statistics in every nation reflect this fact: adolescents remain more likely to break the law than adults. The arrest rate for 15- to 17-year-olds is twice that for those over 18. The disproportion is true for almost every crime except fraud, forgery, and embezzlement, which fewer adolescents commit (FBI, 2015).

Pathways of Adolescent Delinquency

Stubbornnessdefiancerunning away

Response: Social supports that channel or limit rebelliousness

Shopliftingarson and burglary

Response: Stronger human relationships and moral education

Bullyingassault, rape, murder

Response: Action stopped in childhood; assistance is developing other ways to make connections

Variations in Drug Use: Age Trends

Adolescence is sensitive time for experimentation, daily use, and addiction.

Prevalence and incidence increase from ages 10 to 25 then decrease.

Use before age 15 is linked to escalation to negative behaviors and outcomes.

Cohort differences

Inhalant use most likely with youngest adolescent; less understanding of risks and graver consequences

Cigarette smoking down but vaping up

Easy access noted

Both prevalence and incidence and then decrease when adult responsibilities and experiences make drugs less attractive.

U.S. High School Seniors Reporting
Drug Use in the Past Year

By asking the same questions year after year, the Monitoring the Future study shows notable historical effects. It is encouraging that something in society, not in the adolescent, makes drug use increase and decrease and that the most recent data show a continued decline in the drug most commonly abused — alcohol.

*Includes use of amphetamines, sedatives (barbiturates), narcotics other than heroin, or tranquilizers — without a doctor’s prescription.

Harm from Drugs (part 1)

In general

Pre-maturity drug use may harm body and brain growth.

Unlikely an adolescent will notice the path from use to abuse to addiction.

Tobacco

Slows down growth (impairs digestion, nutrition, and appetite)

Reduces the appetite

Causes protein and vitamin deficiencies

Can damage developing hearts, lungs, brains, and reproductive systems

OPPOSING PERSEPCTIVES: E-Cigarettes: Path to Addiction or Healthy Choice?

Some fear that adolescents who try e-cigarettes will become addicted to nicotine and be harmed by some other ingredients.

Distributers of e-cigarettes argue that their products are a healthier alternative to cigarettes, that people should be able to make their own choices, and that the fear of adolescent vaping is exaggerated.

What do you think?

U.S. Adolescents Using Tobacco
in the Last Month

The fact that more than one in five high school students (that’s 3 million people) use tobacco — even though the purchase of any kind is illegal — in the past month, is troubling. That means that more that 3 million students are at risk for addiction and poor health. The surprise (not shown) is that all these rates are lower than a year earlier. Is that because laws are stricter or are teenagers getting wiser?

Harm from Drugs (part 2)

Alcohol

Most frequently abused drug among North American teenagers

Heavy drinking may permanently impair memory and self-control by damaging the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex.

Alcohol allows momentary denial of problems  when problems get worse because they have been ignored, more alcohol is needed.

Denial can have serious consequences.

Genes and neighborhoods are in part the cause of addiction and rebellion.

Harm from Drugs (part 3)

Marijuana

Adolescents who regularly smoke marijuana are more likely to drop out of school, become teenage parents, and be unemployed (correlational data).

Habitual use of marijuana also results in decreased brain connections and lower intelligence (neurological evidence).

Preventing Drug Abuse

All psychoactive drugs are particularly harmful in adolescence.

Adults who exaggerate harm or who abuse drugs themselves are unlikely to prevent teen drug use.

Antidrug programs may cause a backlash (generational forgetting).

Price, perception, and parents are influential.

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Chapter 13-16:

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What I have learned about this subject or topic (Facts)

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Answer: Good Question. We are a group of a freelance board of students and professional essay writers. At our website, you may get help with any type of academic assignments: essay, coursework, term paper, business plan, case study, article review, research paper, presentation, and speech. Top writers can help with complex assignments such as dissertations, thesis papers, etc. All of them are professionals possessing excellent knowledge in their field of expertise, perfect writing skills, quality, and speed. When you place an order on our website, we assign it to the best writer. Once the writer finishes the work, the paper is submitted to our quality assurance desk who go through it and ensure it is unique and plagiarism free and that the instructions were followed to the detail. After this step we upload the paper in your account, we also send a copy to the email that you used to register the account with. we can guarantee you that the paper will be 100% plagiarism free. Besides, our services are 100% private and confidential

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Answer: There are three major steps in the ordering process

Step 1 ....................................................paper details In this step, you will fill in the instructions of your paper; you can upload any materials that you feel will make your assignment a success. Besides, you can also email us at [email protected] Remember to specify the correct academic level. Please note that sources mean the number of references.

Step 2...................................................... Price calculation Kindly specify the number of pages, type of spacing and the correct deadline. This step will give you the estimated cost minus discount -- you may add the extra features if you wish.

Step 3 ....................................................discount and payment Use the discount code HAPPY2018 to enjoy up to 30% discount of your total cost After this step, proceed to safe payment; you can checkout using your card or PayPal Please note we will send the complete paper to the email you will provide while registering. A copy will also be uploaded to your account

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Answer: Once we are done with the paper, we will be uploaded to your account. A copy will also be sent to the email you registered with. We can guarantee you the following:- 1. Our service is private and confidential; we don't spam or share your contacts with anyone 2. The final paper will be plagiarism free. We will send a Turnitin Report to the email you registered with 3. At our company, willing to do free unlimited revisions until you are satisfied with your paper

Question:- Am a new client, How can I get the guarantee that the paper will be completed and sent to me before my deadline?

Answer: Thank you for expressing your concerns. We would love to have you as our loyal customer. We are certain if we do good work, you will come back for me. Besides, you will give us referrals to your friends and family. For that reason, we can’t fail to deliver your paper within your specified time frame. We will ensure we submit the paper on time so that you can have enough time to go through it, if you have problems with the paper delivered, you can request a free revision. You are entitled to as many revisions as you would wish until you get a paper that satisfies you

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FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

Question: How does this work?

Question: How do I place an Order after getting to the order page

Question: How will I know when my paper is complete? or How will I get the complete Paper?

Question:- Am a new client, How can I get the guarantee that the paper will be completed and sent to me before my deadline?

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